Robert Estienne

Robert Estienne

Robert Estienne (also Robert Etienne or Latinized Robertus Stephanus , * 1499 or 1503 in Paris , † September 7, 1559 in Geneva ) was a French printmaker , publisher and lexicographer .

His life in Paris

The beginnings of the Estienne printing company

Roberts Estienne's father, Henry Estienne , presumably married Guyone Viart in 1501, the widow of John Higman from Meissen , who had successfully set up a printer in Paris on Rue Jean-de-Beauvais and who had already worked with his partner, Wolfgang Hopyl Henry.

In 1504/05, Henry Estienne, who had just left university as a trained printer, took over the printing company, which would be continued in the following century by numerous of his descendants, starting with Robert Estienne. In the 16th century this street in the Latin Quarter was one of the main channels of Paris university hustle and bustle. The continuation of a company through remarriage was not uncommon at that time if the heirs of the deceased were not yet legally competent.

The marriage between Henry Estienne and Guyone Viart resulted in the three sons Francis, Robert, Charles and the daughter Nicole Estienne. After Henry Estienne died in 1520, Viart married the successful businessman and printmaker Simon de Colines , with whom Robert Estienne then worked closely.

In 1526 the printing works became too small for the two highly talented craftsmen, and Simon de Colines decided to move within the quarter. Robert Estienne, on the other hand, continued to run his father's print shop on Rue Jean-de-Beauvais. He now used his own name and a self-chosen print symbol, the olive tree with the inscription " Noli altum sapere sed time ". This request refers to the eleventh chapter of Romans , in which Paul warns the Gentile Christians against arrogance.

When the business relationship with Simon de Colines broke up , Robert Estienne, who had just completed his training and had legal capacity , initially had a difficult time establishing his own printing business. In 1526 Robert married the rich and learned Perette, daughter of the printer Jodocus Badius , who had already been in contact with Henry Estienne. The marriage with Perette resulted in a total of ten children.

Production and Marketing

Robert Estienne had undoubtedly inherited his first printing press from his father Henry Estienne, but he probably bought four to five more over the course of his printing career in Paris . Furthermore, Robert inherited his father's fonts and used them for his first own prints. The quality of his print work was a result of the elaborate design of his letters , the intelligence with which he used them, and the taste for arranging them. The accuracy of his printing work, the fine quality of his paper and the classic proportions of the margins of his books made him a master of printing in the 16th century. He depicted different variants of his olive tree symbol, but still almost completely dispensed with decorations. For the most part the only decoration in his books were the tastefully decorated initials .

Robert Estienne was not only the printer who pressed a book, he was also the publisher who paid for it and the bookseller who sold it. He provided many of his print editions with comments and forewords. Like no other scholar of the time, Estienne addresses the readership in it. Estienne often used the front page for subtle advertising purposes, but unlike older publicists, not in the sense of a crude invitation to buy. For books that were already in circulation, for example, he noted all the advantages that his edition brought with it: revisions or additions by the author, notes, improvements, comments from famous scholars or the provision of an index or a glossary . If it was a new work, he often included all the titles that the author had intended for a work. He also printed dedications when they were particularly worth mentioning and, for example, addressed to the king.

Family and Relationship with Other Authors

Perhaps because of his work, Robert Estienne was permanently surrounded by various scholars who, because of their distant places of residence, came to the Estienne house and communicated with each other in Latin. Even the liberally raised children only spoke Latin with their father, which they absorbed at home like their second mother tongue from birth. This went so far that Estienne was asked by his son Henri to have lessons in Greek rather than Latin, because he was already proficient in Latin.

Only a few contemporary humanists had a noteworthy publisher-author relationship on the part of Estienne. Two of these few were, for example, Mathurin Cordier and Guillaume Budé , with whom Estienne mainly associated humanism and Hellenism . Estienne published Forensia with royal privilege for Budé in 1544 . Scholarship and business acumen helped Robert Estienne to achieve a lot of fame and made him largely independent of university and private assignments.

The learned printer

Typographic mark by Robert Estienne

Typographic mark by Robert Estienne

The Latin Bible

Estienne had worked on the Bible translation long before he became a freelance printer. He completed his Biblia and an additional volume with a glossary and indexes on September 23, 1528. What was special about his work was that he was not satisfied with simply reprinting existing works, but instead repeatedly consulted original sources for his texts. In painstaking preparatory work, he had repeatedly compared his own translations of the Vulgate with the historical manuscripts that the monks of Saint-Germain and Saint-Denis gave him. He had his work carefully checked by learned theologians . When working on the Biblia , two things were particularly important to him: On the one hand, the requirement for an absolutely correct and original translation and, on the other hand, an expansion of the explanations in order to make the Biblia understandable even to the average educated reader.

From Terentius to Thesaurus

As one of his earliest publications, Robert Estienne brought out a work by the ancient poet Terentius on September 27, 1526. As early as 1528, his customers asked him for a newer and checked edition of the Latin dictionary most popular at the time, published in 1502 by Ambrosius Calepinus . Robert Estienne always tried to meet the buyer's wishes. However, he found that the edition of Calepinus as the basis for a revision contained too many fundamental errors, so it was unusable for this, and he refused to revise the book. According to Estienne, the work had too many poor Latin translations and essential terms would be missing. He was then asked to write his own Latin dictionary. He tried to hire all the scholars he knew for this project, but could not promise them any payment. None of those asked agreed, out of fear of the scope of the project or because of their own obligations. Thereupon Estienne put all other publications behind the work on the new dictionary. For this he researched mainly in the writings of Terentius and Titus Maccius Plautus , in the tragedies of Seneca , in ancient comedies and in other Latin literature, in which he left countless markings and notes and from which he put all the important terms in alphabetical order. For his Thesaurus linguae latinae he used the writings of a total of 32 Latin authors. In addition, he wrote texts himself, which he had often checked by scholars. The thesaurus is the first Latin language dictionary that dispenses with proper names. Estienne justifies this in his foreword with the fact that he did not want to enlarge the edition by adding proper names and thus overpricing. Later he will write two Latin dictionaries that contain only proper names. In order to be understood by the average educated, however, Estienne did not publish a purely Latin-language dictionary, but gave explanations in French. The use of French-language explanations in his thesaurus was so severely criticized by scholars that Estienne completely removed them in the later edition of 1543. For his thesaurus , Estienne received a royal privilege on March 22, 1530, more than a year before its completion , which protected the publisher from reprints for six years.

On September 28, 1531, Estienne completed the Thesaurus linguae latinae with 964 pages, some of which appeared in two volumes. The thesaurus is an outstanding result of research and collaboration and was regarded as a standard Latin work into the following century. With this dictionary Robert Estienne introduced modern Latin lexicography . In 1621, Étienne Pasquier described it as a unique phenomenon “par son Thesaurus linguae latinae qui n'eut jamais son pareil”.

French and Latin lexicography

In France in the 16th century, numerous humanistic grammarians and lexicographers dealt with the discrepancy between phonetics and graphics in the French language, whereby two main fronts emerged: On the one hand, the advocates of the etymological principle, who used the Latin origin of the words as the basis for their spelling and on the other hand, the adherents of the phonetic principle, i.e. the writing of words according to their pronunciation. Robert Estienne, an avowed friend of Latin, promised himself the etymological principle. According to him, the spelling based on etymology is based on the opinion of the “plus sçavans de nostre langue”, which, according to Estienne, can be found at the Paris court and in the Parlement de Paris, among others . All other Estiennes dictionaries were created on the basis of his thesaurus . The concept of his Latin-French dictionary was not innovative, but it worked most efficiently on the principles under which authors had written dictionaries before Estienne. The French elements that had been used in the same sentences with correct Classical Latin up to that point were almost completely sifted out. Interpretations by grammarians and commentators were checked for their correctness of the text and individual words for their applicability in a specific context. Quotations from grammarians were not only considered superfluous by Estienne, but were also replaced by original statements from classical authors. In addition, as often before, to make things easier for the reader, he used numerous example sentences and idioms to illustrate the words, as well as French translations that were particularly common. In 1538 the Dictionarium Latino-Gallicum was created and in 1539/40, as an actually simple inversion of the Dictionarium , the first general language dictionary based on French: the Dictionaire francoislatin (contenant les motz et manieres de parler francois, tournez en latin) . This appears for the first time with 9,000 words and in its second edition in 1549 with over 13,000 terms, including countless specialist terms . Here, too, Estienne used numerous idioms and example sentences, etymological or normative notes. Contrary to the term thesaurus , which denoted monolingual and encyclopedic dictionaries, the word Dictionnaire was first used in this context by Robert Estienne and henceforth used to denote initially bilingual dictionaries. In the 1540s, Estienne published some dictionaries for school use, such as the Dictionariolum puerum (1542) and the first French-Latin general language school dictionary Les mots francois (1544). With these two dictionaries, Estienne created the form of the Latin school dictionary that is still valid today. At that time, Estienne was considered to be the guarantee for the spread of pure, unconsumed Latin. After Louis Meigret published the first French grammar in French in 1550 , Estienne published his Traicte de la grammaire francoise in 1557 , which he also translated into Latin. Robert Estienne's dictionaries formed the basis for bilingual or multilingual dictionaries of the English, Italian, German, Spanish and Flemish languages ​​for numerous subsequent authors.

Published between 1526 and 1539

In his first five years of work, Estienne published 98 books. 29 of these 98 books were classical Latin publications, including ten Cicero works. The remaining 69 publications were by humanistic authors of his or previous time. All editions are written in Latin, except for the short treatise La Manière de tourner les verbes . Of all his printed works, which were produced between 1530 and 1539, 30% were classical Latin works, 50% were commentaries on these and textbooks of Latin from a humanistic point of view, and 20% were copies of earlier works. In the 25 years that he spent in Paris , he produced an average of 18 books a year. The most essential part of his work for his career must have been the publication and sale of his own works. Robert Estienne spoke of himself as a "printing scholar" who claimed nothing in a book other than "toil and care" as his own merit.

Employment at the royal court

Employed as a royal printer for Latin, Hebrew and Greek

On June 24, 1539 Robert Estienne was appointed Imprimeur et libraire ès lettres hebraiques et latines du Roy . From the beginning of his career, Estienne was known as a specialist in printing Latin texts and an excellent trader. He got the job as a royal printer mainly because of his high position as a scholar of Latin studies. What is unique is that Estienne never belonged to the booksellers sworn in by the university body, the libraires jurés . The highest title that could be bestowed on a member of the Paris book trade went to a man without a university position and without a recommendation from the same.

After Estienne had used rather simple fonts for his early works in Greek in 1539 and 1540 , Francis I asked Claude Garamond in 1541 to create new fonts, the Grecs du Roy , especially for book prints intended for the royal library . These were modeled on the writings of Angelo Vergecio, a Cretan who came to Paris from Italy .

Estienne began the series of prints with the Grecs du Roy in 1544 with Demonstratio evangelica by Eusebius of Caesarea , in which he is immortalized as typographus regius . Indeed, the official appointment as royal printer for Greek has never been documented in writing. It is only understandable from his printed works that Robert Estienne shortened his title Imprimeur ès lettres hebraiques et latines du Roy to the title Imprimeur du Roy after about six months in office and then used it indefinitely.

Published between 1539 and 1550

Estienne was now increasingly tasked with publishing the work of famous protégés , royal publicists and court officials. Editions of his Biblia only appeared again after he had finished working as a royal printer. He brought out numerous editions smaller and therefore both more manageable and cheaper. In addition to all of the publications of this period, the Parisian authors and publishers were severely restricted by the strict censorship of the Paris Sorbonne from the early 1540s .

Life on the farm

Estienne was considered a persona grata at the French court, and it is remarkable to what extent his fame grew steadily during his employment as royal printer at the court and at the same time his popularity at the theological faculty continued to decline. Estienne had many relationships with authors at the Paris court , such as Joachim du Bellay and Jean du Bellay , Guillaume Petit, Guillaume Budé and Pierre du Chastel. The forewords addressed to the public were supplemented with hymns of praise for the king when he was appointed royal printer. The printer became the royal instrument of power and the channel through which the royal favor reached the public. Estienne saw his function as a royal printer in bringing responsibility and explanation to the people. In return, he enjoyed the favor and protection of the king, coupled with the permission to later leave the country.

Printer limitations in the 16th century

Privilege and piracy

In 16th century Paris there was as yet no law against the theft of ideas. One could only get a privilege from the state to protect his work, which was valid for a limited period and which Robert Estienne defined in his Dictionarium Latino-Gallicum in 1531 as “une loy particulière, pour ou contre aucun”. Since about 1510, the Parisian was Parlement this recognized as a licensed site. In 1536, Estienne had a “cum privilegio” written for the first time in front of a work that was not his own. The seminary of his brother, the anatomist and naturalist Charles Estienne (* around 1505, † 1564) was protected from copies for a period of two years.

Il est permis audict Robert Estienne imprimer ledict petit livret intitulé Seminarium arborum. Et defenses à tous autres de l'imprimer, ne vendre autres que ceulx qui seront faictz par ledict Robert Estienne dedans deux ans prochainement venans. Faict le sixiesme jour de May, MDXXXVI. JJ De Mesmes.

From 1539, when he was employed as a royal printer, Robert Estienne received the Privilège du Roy for 5 to 10 years for his new print editions as well as for new editions of previous editions, for example for La Manière de tourner les verbes from 1526.

Censorship by the Sorbonne

At the beginning of Robert Estienne's career, a law was passed in France that forbade all publishers from publishing any new work before it had been censored by the relevant faculty of the Paris Sorbonne . Estienne had already been attacked by the Sorbonne in 1523 when he and his stepfather Simon de Colines had published a Greek edition of the New Testament , which turned out to be handier and more correct than any previous edition. First, each work was reviewed by four libraires jurés , who were obliged to report the results to the rector and the deans of the three next higher faculties, who in turn were to appoint two members of the relevant faculty to review the books. The commissioners were obliged to keep a copy of each book with a note of the expert opinion. For Estienne, this strict censorship was the ultimate reason to leave the country. A list of all 65 censored books was drawn up on August 19, 1546 by John André, one of the four chairmen of the libraires jurés . This list was preceded by numerous sales bans.

Ban on sale of Biblia

The Paris Sorbonne criticized Estienne's translation not only because of its alteration of the conventional text, but above all because of its critical statements in its notes, glossaries and indices . Due to the strict censorship and the delay in sales, Robert Estienne finally declared himself ready to print all the errors in his Bible declared by the censorship of the theologians at the end of his work, and stated that this was in the spirit of Jesus Christ and the king. Despite his title as Imprimeur du Roy , Estienne had to submit to a royal ban on the printing and sale of his Bibles achieved by the Sorbonne in 1547 . When Francis I died that year, Estienne could hardly withstand the hostility of the Sorbonne without his protector.

In 1552 Robert Estienne wrote a pamphlet against the prohibition to the Parisian theologians : Ad censuras theologorum parisiensium responsio .

Relocation to Switzerland

Conversion to Calvinism

In 1549 Estienne made trips to Geneva , Lausanne and Zurich , already with the idea of leaving France in the back of her mind . During his stays, he was particularly impressed by the Reformed congregations. Estienne was an admirer of the French-born reformer Johannes Calvin , whose works he had published since moving to Geneva. In 1550 Robert Estienne converted to Calvinism and asked his children in a will to do the same. Soon afterwards he bought a house in Geneva. The widow of Guillaume Budé with her five children and Estienne's stepbrother Conrad Badius also moved to Geneva. In 1556 Estienne was granted citizenship in Geneva.

Production and censorship

His biggest challenge when moving was to relocate the printing company , which was already well established in Paris , to Geneva . He secured duplicates of the Grecs du Roy matrices and took them with him to Geneva. When Estienne arrived, an active printing and sales industry had already been established in Geneva, although the constant newcomers could already speak of an excessive demand for booksellers and printmakers. Of the more than 18 printing companies in Geneva, only two other companies owned four presses; on average there were only one or two machines in the other plants. In 1551 Estienne published a Greek edition of the New Testament in which he first introduced the verse division of the Bible text that is still valid today. A year later, Estienne prints a French version of the New Testament in Geneva with the help of his stepbrother Conrad Badius. After moving to Geneva in 1550, however, Estienne only produced about six books a year.

There was also censorship in Geneva, but in a much more humane form than in Paris. The censorship authority was officially founded in the summer of 1539 in order to guarantee a high standard of correctness. Accordingly, no one should be allowed to print something that had not received a license from the local council. In Paris, however, the strict censorship had caused an uproar. The prohibition of inexcusably high book runs and the violent tenacity with which the censorship was carried out caused important printmakers to emigrate abroad. Paris was about to lose its supremacy in book production.

Estienne's legacy

The son Henri was named a universal heir by Robert Estienne, so he would inherit the house and printing house. With him, Estienne began work on the Thesaurus linguae graecae in Geneva , which Henri completed after his father's death. His sons Robert II and Charles II had married without their father's consent and had returned to France against their father's wishes . In Paris, Robert's brother Charles Estiennes, who became Robert's heir as Imprimeur du Roy, was appointed their legal guardian and obtained the surrender of their father's confiscated property for the brothers. Robert II then began in 1556 to continue his father's old print shop in rue Jean-de-Beauvais in Paris under the symbol of the olive tree .

Robert Estienne died on September 7, 1559.

The name of the influential printer family lives on today in the Ècole supérieure Estienne des arts et des industries graphiques in Paris.

Another legacy of Robert Estienne is the division of the New Testament, which he carried out for the first time in a Greek and Latin Bible edition in Geneva.

Fonts

• La maniere de tourner en langue françoise les verbes actifs, passifs, gerondifs, supins et participes, aussi les verbes impersonnels. Paris 1526.
• Biblia. Paris 1528.
• Dictionarium seu Latinae linguae Thesaurus. Paris 1531.
• Dictionarium Latinogallicum. Paris 1538.
• Dictionaire Francois - Latin. Contenant les motz & manneres de parler Francois, tournez en Latin. Paris 1539, published 1540.
• Dictionarium propriorum nominum virorum, mulierum, populorum, idolorum, urbium, fluviorum, montium, caeterorumque locorum quae passim in libris prophanis leguntur. Paris 1541.
• Dictionariolum puerorum. Paris 1542.
• Les mots francois. Paris 1544.
• Novum Testament. Geneva 1551.
• Ad Censvras Theologorum Parisiensium, quibus Biblia à Roberto Stephano typographo Regio excusa calumniosè notarunt eiusdem Roberti Stephani responsio. Geneva 1552.
• Le Nouveau Testament: C'est a dire, La Nouvelle alliance de nostre Seigneur Jesus Christ, Tant en Latin qu'en François: les deux traduictes du Grecs, respondantes l'une à l'autre, verset à verset, notez par nombres. Geneva 1552.
• La Bible, Qui est toute la Saincte Escripture contenant le Vieil et Nouveau Testament ou Alliance. Geneva 1553.
• Biblia utriusque Testamenti. Geneva 1557.
• Traicte de la grammaire francoise. (presumably Geneva) 1557. Traicté de la grammaire francoise (1557) , ed. by Colette Demaizière, Paris 2003

literature

• Antoine Augustin Renouard: Annales de l'imprimerie des Estienne ou Histoire de la famille des Estienne et de ses éditions. 2nd Edition. Renouard, Paris 1843.
• Elizabeth Armstrong: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. An historical study of the elder Stephanus. University Press, Cambridge 1954.
• Talmage Starnes DeWitt: Robert Estienne's influence of lexicography. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin 1963.
• Jean-Paul Benoit: Robert Estienne. Imprimeur du Roi. Imprimeur et éd. de la Bible. Series: Aventuriers pour Dieu. Editions Oberlin, Strasbourg 1968.
• Hans Widmann: The printer-publisher Henri II Estienne. Gutenberg-Ges., Mainz 1970.
• Henri-Jean Martin: Le temps de Robert Estienne. In: Histoire de l'édition française. Vol. 1. Cercle de la Librairie, Paris 1982, pp. 230-235.
• Fred Schreiber: The Estiennes. An annotated catalog of 300 highlights of their various presses. EK Schreiber, New York 1982.
• Margarete Lindemann: The French dictionaries from the beginning to 1600. Origin and typological description. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1994.
• Robert Aulotte: Précis de Littérature Française du XVième siècle. Presses universitaires de France, Paris 1991.
• Frank-Rutger Hausmann : French Renaissance. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 1997.
• Johannes Klare: French language history. Klett, Stuttgart 1998.
• Margarete Lindemann: Robert Estienne. Dictionarium (1531) and the development of lexicography. In: Joachim-Felix Leonhard (Ed.): Media Studies. A manual for the development of media and forms of communication. Volume 1. De Gruyter, Berlin 1999, pp. 710-725.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ One can only make assumptions about the exact year of birth of Robert Estienne. The years 1499 and 1503 can be found in the literature (cf. Lindemann 1999, p. 710).
2. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 8.
3. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 3-5.
4. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 8-9.
5. ↑ Lat .: “Don't be haughty, but be afraid!” Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 10.
6. ↑ See http://www.llb-detmold.de/ausstellungen/bibeljahr/mai.html ( Memento from July 9, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
7. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 15.
8. ↑ See Widmann, Hans: The printer-publisher Henri II Estienne. P. 9.
9. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 46-52.
10. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 21 ff.
11. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 61.
12. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 105-114.
13. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 72.
14. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: Robert Estienne. P. 711.
15. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 72-78.
16. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 79-85.
17. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: The French dictionaries from the beginnings to 1600. P. 118.
18. ↑ The Hebrae, chaldaea, graeca et latina nomina virorum ... qua in Biblis leguntur (1537) and the Dictionarium propriorum nominum (1541; cf. Lindemann 1999, p. 711).
19. ^ Cf. Lindemann, Margarete: The French dictionaries from the beginnings to 1600. P. 315–326.
20. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 86. 94.
21. ↑ See Klare, Johannes: Französische Sprachgeschichte, p. 96.
22. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer, pp. 87-88.
23. ↑ Cf. Aulotte, Robert: Précis de Littérature Française du XVIème siècle, p. 260.
24. ↑ See Klare, Johannes: French language history. P. 98.
25. ^ Cf. Lindemann, Margarete: The French dictionaries from the beginnings to 1600. P. 268.
26. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: Robert Estienne. P. 715.
27. ↑ Cf. Aulotte, Robert: Précis de Littérature Française du XVième siècle, p. 261.
28. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: Robert Estienne. P. 723.
29. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 95-99.
30. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 27.
31. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 67.
32. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 117-123.
33. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 52.
34. ↑ See Widmann, Hans: The printer-publisher Henri II Estienne. P. 8.
35. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 124.
36. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 102-103.
37. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 147-159.
38. ↑ Barbara I. Tshisuaka: Estienne (Stephanus), Charles. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 371.
39. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 35. 37.
40. ^ Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 37.
41. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 37-38.
42. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 165.
43. ↑ See Widmann, Hans: The printer-publisher Henri II Estienne. P. 9.
44. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer, pp. 165–168.
45. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 177.
46. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: Robert Estienne. P. 711.
47. ↑ See Widmann, Hans: The printer-publisher Henri II Estienne. P. 9.
48. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 170.
49. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 33, 211.
50. ↑ See Haussmann, Frank-Rutger: French Renaissance. P. 154.
51. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 213-214.
52. ↑ See Widmann, Hans: The printer-publisher Henri II Estienne. P. 9.
53. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 215-216.
54. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 236.
55. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: Robert Estienne. P. 710.
56. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 27.
57. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. Pp. 248, 254.
58. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: Robert Estienne. P. 711.
59. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 256.
60. ↑ See Lindemann, Margarete: Robert Estienne. P. 711.
61. ↑ See Armstrong, Elizabeth: Robert Estienne, Royal Printer. P. 257.
62. ↑ www.ecole-estienne.fr ( Memento of the original dated November 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 

Web links

• Literature by and about Robert Estienne in the catalog of the German National Library
• Works by and about Robert Estienne  in the German Digital Library