Sexual violence in World War II

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Sexual violence in World War II included forced prostitution in National Socialist camp brothels , in army brothels of the German Wehrmacht and the Japanese Army (→ comfort women and war crimes of the Japanese armed forces in World War II ) as well as mass rape , the soldiers of the Axis Powers and the Allies in World War II each against women from opposing states committed.

These crimes became a special research topic in historical studies in the 1990s .

Wehrmacht

Sex crimes and rape by Wehrmacht soldiers remained largely unexplored until the end of the 1990s. In 1999, the military historian Wolfgang Petter pointed out that an order from the Army High Command of July 5, 1940 ultimately resulted in "choosing the gentlest penal tenor" in the case of rape. The fact that the Wehrmacht often had no interest in prosecuting and documenting sexual violence against civilians, according to historian Birthe Kundrus in the same volume published by the Military History Research Office, was due to the fact that “in the context of the race-ideologically motivated war of conquest and extermination, humiliation of the population was an integral part of warfare. "

In her dissertation on sexual violence by soldiers of the Wehrmacht, published in 2004, Birgit Beck stated that 5,349 soldiers of the Wehrmacht had been convicted of "moral offenses", above all "rape" by 1944. How large the number of unreported sexual acts of sexual violence was in relation to these 5,349 documented cases cannot be reliably estimated due to the armed forces leadership's lack of interest in criminal prosecution and the “arid sources”. Beck emphasizes that above all the martial law decree of May 13, 1941, belonging to the Barbarossa company , which removed the criminal offenses of German soldiers against Soviet civilians from the military court “compulsory prosecution”, destroyed the basis for the prosecution of sexual offenses and largely prevented them from being recorded. Rape of Soviet women by German soldiers occurred most frequently “in the context of billeting in civilian houses, when requisitions were ordered or in connection with looting”.

Regina Mühlhäuser confirms these findings in her dissertation 2010 , specifically related to the German-Soviet War , and states that very few sexual acts of violence committed by soldiers of the Wehrmacht resulted in disciplinary consequences or were prosecuted. Sexual acts of violence by German soldiers against Soviet women did not represent rare exceptional acts, and occasionally entire units were even involved in excessive sexual violence. In addition, according to Mühlhäuser, there is "various pieces of evidence that the murder of Jewish women after sexual violence was not an isolated incident."

According to the social scientist Christa Paul, everyday life in Wehrmacht brothels in Eastern Europe was characterized by sexual violence.

Japan

Red Army

course

During the advance of the Red Army on the territory of the German Reich , Red Army soldiers raped German women en masse, especially during and after the Battle of Berlin . Barbara Johr estimates that around two million women and girls were victims of sexual violence, around 1.4 million in flight and expulsion from the German eastern regions , 600,000 in Berlin and the later Soviet occupation zone . Around 10,000 raped women died as a result, many of them by suicide . Ilko-Sascha Kowalczuk and Stefan Wolle assume 110,000 to 800,000 cases in Berlin in 1945. An estimated 40 percent of the victims were raped multiple times. By 1947, Red Army soldiers raped an estimated two million women in the Soviet Zone . Norman M. Naimark emphasizes that all of these figures are based on estimates and projections:

"It is highly unlikely that historians will ever know how many German women were raped by Soviet soldiers in the months before and in the years after [the] surrender ."

The Konstanz historian Miriam Gebhardt also considers it impossible to determine exact numbers, but considers the two million figure to be clearly too high. It assumes around 4,300 children born as a result of rape by Allied soldiers in the areas of the later Federal Republic or the smaller Soviet Zone / GDR, i.e. a total of around 8,600 children of rape victims and on this basis calculates a total of 860,000 rape victims in Germans Areas where Red Army soldiers committed about half of these rapes.

Witnesses and those involved have often described rapes of this kind, including those of Jewish women who were freed from a concentration camp or hiding place where they escaped deportation.

The leadership of the Red Army had strictly forbidden rape of German women and threatened harsh punishments. How the regulations were handled, however, was in the hands of the individual local commanders. Some punished rape and looting with death or flogging, while others ignored the sexual violence of their soldiers. Since the summer of 1946, the Soviet leadership gradually restricted its soldiers' contacts with the German population for political and ideological reasons. In 1947 the Soviet troops were concentrated in their own areas where Germans were no longer allowed to live. At the same time, the pressure on the commanders was increased and finally, in early 1949, the minimum sentence for rape was set at ten to fifteen years in a labor camp .

According to Atina Grossman, most of the pregnancies in Berlin that resulted from rape by Soviet soldiers were terminated by abortions . In agreement with the initially National Socialist, later Allied authorities and the Protestant Church, § 218 was de facto suspended for these cases. Affidavits of rape by Red Army soldiers were required from the pregnant women. In it they justified their wish partly with their social distress, partly with the rapists' “foreign race”. The latter justification was based on the one hand on the socio-political discourse of the Weimar Republic , and on the other hand on racial theory and eugenics from the Nazi era. A number of "Russian children" were born during the occupation, many of them as a result of rape. Norman Naimark writes about the socio-psychological consequences of the rape:

“In any case, just as the rape victim carried the consequences of the crime with him throughout his life, the pain they felt together was almost unbearable. The social psychology of men and women in the Soviet zone was shaped by the crimes in the first days of the occupation about the establishment of the GDR in autumn 1949 until today. "

Historical explanations

Naimark names " hate propaganda , painful experiences in home countries and a humiliating image of German women in the press and among the soldiers" as possible causes . He also points out that there was a tendency among Soviet citizens to excess alcohol and that in what he believed to be a patriarchal structure in Russian and neighboring Asian societies, past dishonor could be offset by raping hostile women. The higher standard of living of most Germans, for example toilets in the house, could have led to a “national inferiority complex ” which, together with the desire for revenge, could have caused the rapes. Hans-Ulrich Wehler calls mass rape an "infinitely humiliating, often fatal price" that women had to pay for the crimes committed by men in the war of extermination .

Jan Foitzik believes that one of the reasons for this was the National Socialist orders in the final phase of the war to declare villages that were about to be conquered as " fortresses " and to defend them "to the last breath". The civilian population was thus abused as a protective shield in breach of international martial law and militarily senseless . This had a situational impact on the behavior of the conquerors and contributed to excessive looting and rape.

reception

In West Germany, Soviet acts of violence during the war and after the war served to portray the entire German people as a nation of victims. West German historiography initially used it under apologetic auspices to avoid remembering German responsibility for Nazi crimes against Soviet citizens. The German student movement of the 1960s pushed back the apologetic view; it was replaced in the 1970s by a critical reappraisal of the Nazi past.

Helke Sander, Barbara Johr and others claimed in the 1990s that Soviet rape had been a repressed topic that had been taboo for decades in both German states. Various authors criticized Sanders and Johr's portrayal of rape as being apolitical (Atina Grossmann 1995), as a misappropriation of important details of the historical context (Stuart Liebman, Annette Michelson) or as an example of an ahistorical approach to war-related rape (Pascale Bos). Bos saw an internal contradiction in Sander and Johr: On the one hand , they tried to generalize the rape of German women as a misogynist act, on the other hand , they tried to portray it as a form of genocide by racially inferior Soviet soldiers against racially superior German women. By doing so, they would have assumed that such abuse was particularly cruel for the victims; At the same time, they did not consider rape of Soviet women by Wehrmacht soldiers to be particularly worth mentioning. Grossmann emphasized that Soviet mass rape between mothers and daughters in families was a regular issue, so it was by no means hushed up. She saw a downright “fear” among historians that the treatment of this topic could excuse the Nazi past and make the Wehrmacht's war of extermination appear as a normal war.

In the Soviet Zone, an editorial in the newspaper Neues Deutschland first publicly discussed the Soviet rapes in 1948. The historiography of the GDR treated these acts as a taboo subject. There were a few exceptions in the East German memoir literature. Christa Wolf only briefly hinted at the subject of rape in her story Blickwechsel (1970), but avoided it in her autobiography. Werner Heiduczek mentioned it briefly in his novel Tod am Meer (1977), which was therefore banned after the second edition. Erwin Strittmatter treated rape as a central conflict in his novel The Miracle Worker (1978). He was therefore forced by the state censorship to add to previous Nazi crimes in order to avoid a publication ban. In the autobiographical volume of stories, Die Prinzessinnen im Krautgarten (2000), Wulf Kirsten described the repeated rape of a 17-year-old girl in his home village of Klipphausen .

More recent German films like Der Untergang alluded to the mass rapes by the Red Army, but did not mention them directly. The films A Middleweight Marriage and Joy Division from 2006 and The Good German - In the Ruins of Berlin address the topic directly. It gave rise to much feminist debates. The first autobiographical book on the subject, Eine Frau in Berlin from 1954, was filmed in 2008 as Anonyma - Eine Frau in Berlin . The book initially met with rejection in Germany, but is now enjoying a new level of acceptance and encourages many women to talk about their own past. The first publication of an affected person under their own name was Gabriele Köpp's diary entries in 2010 under the title Why was I just a girl? The trauma of an escape in 1945 .

In her study published in 2015, the historian Miriam Gebhardt assumes at least 860,000 rapes by German women between autumn 1944 and the end of occupation status in 1955. According to her, the victims of sexual violence by Western Allied soldiers were not remembered in public discourse, because just as the crimes of Red Army soldiers were concealed in the GDR, no interest was shown in the old Federal Republic in discussing the attacks by the democratic liberators. Only the women raped by Red Army soldiers experienced an “ideologically instrumentalized form of recognition” in the West and became “witnesses to the conflict in the East-West conflict”. In the GDR, on the other hand, a mixture of not addressing the crimes and the self-evident assumption of an “ original guilt ” of the Germans was operated, which ultimately made the later attacks by the liberators appear justified.

US Army

According to the American criminologist J. Robert Lilly, soldiers of the US Army raped an estimated 11,040 German women as they marched into German territory in 1945. Lilly arrives at this number by taking relevant negotiations before American military courts as a database and assuming that every twentieth sexual offense has been reported. Mostly it was group rapes. Most of the cases happened up to the spring of 1946. Here, too, some of the victims were subsequently killed or died as a result. The historian Miriam Gebhardt assumes, based on the approximately 37,000 American occupation children who were registered in the mid-1950s, of around 190,000 rapes by soldiers of the US Army, since experience shows that five percent of these children resulted from rape, with an average of 100 rapes led to a child.

A fraternization ban applied to US soldiers in Germany ; however, they did not regard sexual intercourse as fraternization ( copulation without conversation is not fraternization ). In many cases, drunk US soldiers are said to have threatened a German family in their home with weapons, forced one or more women to have sex and then thrown the whole family onto the street.

US military courts tried at most African-Americans among the perpetrators and punished some of them, but not white-skinned perpetrators. According to Carol Huntington, African-American perpetrators were more at risk of punishment because of the racial segregation in the US and the US Army at the time. According to Heide Fehrenbach, US officers only saw a threat to the status or the political goals of the US Army in Germany when African Americans committed offenses because of their racism .

French army

According to Marc Hillel, “385 rapes occurred in the Constance area ; 600 in Bruchsal ; and 500 in Freudenstadt . ” Such acts also occurred in Höfingen near Leonberg.

According to Norman Naimark, in the western zones of occupation only the Franco-Moroccan troops were indisciplined in a manner similar to that of the Soviet soldiers. Especially during the occupation of Baden and Württemberg, German women were exposed to similar sexual violence as in the Soviet zone of occupation. According to Miriam Gebhardt, 50,000 German women fell victim to French soldiers.

British Army

According to Miriam Gebhardt, the members of the more disciplined British army and occupying power raped 45,000 women, despite their much larger occupied area, which included four times as many people as the French.

literature

Ordered chronologically in descending order

  • Miriam Gebhardt : When the soldiers came. The rape of German women at the end of World War II. DVA, Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-421-04633-8 .
  • Svenja Eichhorn, Philipp Kuwert : The secret of our grandmothers . An empirical study on sexualised war violence around 1945. Psychosozial-Verlag 2011, ISBN 978-3-8379-2131-1 .
  • Regina Mühlhäuser : Conquests: sexual acts of violence and intimate relationships of German soldiers in the Soviet Union 1941–1945. Hamburger Edition , 2010, ISBN 3-86854-220-5 .
  • Atina Grossmann : Gendered Defeat: Rape, Motherhood and Fraternization. In: Atina Grossmann: Jews, Germans, and Allies. Close Encounters in Occupied Germany. Princeton University Press, 2009, ISBN 0-691-14317-X .
  • Insa Eschebach, Regina Mühlhäuser (ed.): War and gender: sexual violence in war and forced sex labor in Nazi concentration camps. Volume 3 of materials from the Brandenburg Memorials Foundation . Metropol, Berlin 2008, ISBN 3-940938-21-1 .
  • Ulrike Loch: Sexualized Violence in War and Post-War Children: Life and Family History. Barbara Budrich, 2006, ISBN 3-86649-070-4 .
  • Helke Sander, Barbara Johr: Liberators and Liberated: War, rape, children. The time of National Socialism. Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, 2005, ISBN 3-596-16305-6 .
Review: Gertrud Koch: blood, sperm, tears. Liberators and Liberators - a documentary by Helke Sander. In: Annette Brauerhoch and others (ed.): Ethos and society. Women and Film , No. 54/55, Stroemfeld, Basel / Frankfurt am Main April 1994, ISSN  0343-7736 .
  • Birgit Beck: Wehrmacht and sexual violence: Sex crimes before German military courts 1939–1945. Schöningh, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-506-71726-X (= War in History , Volume 18, also dissertation at the University of Bern 2002).
  • Birgit Beck: rapes. Sex crimes committed by soldiers before the military courts of the German Wehrmacht 1939–1944. In: Karen Hagemann (ed.): Heimat-Front. Military and Gender Relations in the Age of World Wars. Frankfurt am Main 2002, ISBN 3-593-36837-4 , pp. 258-274.
  • Insa Meinen: Wehrmacht and prostitution during the Second World War in occupied France. Edition Temmen, 2002, ISBN 3-86108-789-8 .
  • Regina Mühlhauser: Rape in Germany 1945. National victim discourse and individual remembrance of affected women. In: Klaus Naumann (Ed.): Post-war in Germany. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-930908-72-7 , pp. 384-408.
  • Birgit Beck: Sexual violence and war. Gender, race and the National Socialist campaign of extermination against the Soviet Union, 1941–1945. In: Veronika Aegerter and others (ed.): Gender has method: Approaches and perspectives in women's and gender history. Contributions to the 9th Swiss Historians Conference 1998. Chronos, Zurich 1999, ISBN 3-905313-25-1 , pp. 223–234.
  • Birthe Kundrus : Only half the story. Women in the Wehrmacht between 1939 and 1945. A research report. In: Rolf-Dieter Müller, Hans-Erich Volkmann: The Wehrmacht: Myth and Reality. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-486-56383-1 , pp. 719-731 ( online excerpt ).
  • Atina Grossmann: A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers. In: Robert G. Moeller (Ed.): West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era. University of Michigan Press, 1997, ISBN 0-472-06648-X , pp. 33-52 ( online excerpt ; full text ; PDF; 5.1 MB).
  • Birgit Beck: Rape of Women as a War Strategy in World War II? In: Andreas Gestrich (Ed.): Violence in War: Exercise, Experience and Refusal of Violence in Wars of the 20th Century . Lit, 1996, ISBN 3-8258-2359-8 .
  • Erika M. Hoerning: Women as spoils of war. The war on two fronts. Examples from Berlin. In: Lutz Niethammer, Alexander von Plato (ed.): "We are getting other times now." In search of the experience of the people in post-fascist countries. Dietz, 1985, ISBN 3-8012-0113-9 , pp. 327-344.
  • Ingrid Schmidt-Harzbach: One week in April: Berlin 1945. Rape as a mass fate . In: Feministische Studien 3/1984, pp. 51–65.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Jolande Withuis: The lost innocence of memory. Social amnesia in Holland and sexual violence in World War II. In: Insa Eschebach: Memory and Gender: Patterns of Interpretation in Representations of the National Socialist Genocide. Campus, 2002, ISBN 3-593-37053-0 , p. 77
  2. ↑ Birthe Kundrus: Only half the story. Women in the Wehrmacht. In: Rolf-Dieter Müller, Hans-Erich Volkmann (ed. On behalf of MGFA ): The Wehrmacht: Myth and Reality. Oldenbourg, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-486-56383-1 , pp. 719-735, here p. 733.
  3. ^ Wolfgang Petter: Military mass society and de-professionalization of the profession. In: Rolf-Dieter Müller, Hans-Erich Volkmann (ed. On behalf of MGFA ): The Wehrmacht: Myth and Reality. Oldenbourg, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-486-56383-1 , pp. 359-370, here p. 369.
  4. ↑ Birthe Kundrus: Only half the story. Women in the Wehrmacht. In: Rolf-Dieter Müller, Hans-Erich Volkmann (Ed.): The Wehrmacht: Myth and Reality. Munich 1999, p. 734.
  5. ↑ Birgit Beck: Wehrmacht and sexual violence. Sex crimes before German military courts 1939–1945. Paderborn 2004, p. 326 f.
  6. ↑ Birthe Kundrus: Only half the story. Women in the Wehrmacht between 1939 and 1945 - A research report. In: Rolf-Dieter Müller, Hans-Erich Volkmann: The Wehrmacht. Myth and Reality. Munich 1999, p. 734; see. Birgit Beck: Wehrmacht and sexual violence. Sex crimes before German military courts 1939–1945. Paderborn 2004, p. 334.
  7. ↑ Birgit Beck: Wehrmacht and sexual violence. Sex crimes before German military courts 1939–1945. Paderborn 2004, p. 327.
  8. ↑ Birgit Beck: Wehrmacht and sexual violence. Sex crimes before German military courts 1939–1945. Paderborn 2004, p. 328.
  9. ^ Regina Mühlhäuser: Conquests. Sexual violence and intimate relationships between German soldiers in the Soviet Union 1941–1945. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2010, p. 145.
  10. ^ Regina Mühlhäuser: Conquests. Sexual violence and intimate relationships between German soldiers in the Soviet Union 1941–1945. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2010, p. 74 u. P. 144.
  11. ^ Regina Mühlhäuser: Conquests. Sexual violence and intimate relationships between German soldiers in the Soviet Union 1941–1945. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2010, p. 134.
  12. ↑ Christa Paul: forced prostitution: state-built brothels under National Socialism. Edition Hentrich, Berlin 1994, p. 134.
  13. ↑ Barbara Johr: The events in numbers . In: the same and Helke Sander: BeFreier and Liberated: War, rape, children. The time of National Socialism. Frankfurt am Main 2005, pp. 48 and 54 f .; Udo Grashoff: "In an attack of depression ...": Suicides in the GDR. Ch. Links Verlag, 2006, ISBN 3-86153-420-7 , p. 184 .
  14. ↑ Ilko-Sascha Kowalczuk , Stefan wool : Red star over Germany. Soviet troops in the GDR. Ch. Links Verlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 3-86153-584-X , p. 38 .
  15. ↑ Ulf Brunnbauer , Andreas Helmedach, Stefan Troebst: Interfaces. Festschrift for Holm Sundhaussen on his 65th birthday. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 2007, ISBN 3-486-58346-8 , p. 486, footnote 6 .
  16. ↑ Norman M. Naimark: The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts) 1995, p. 132 f.
  17. ↑ Miriam Gebhardt: When the soldiers came. The rape of German women at the end of World War II . DVA, Munich 2015, p. 32 f.
  18. ↑ Examples: Svetlana Alexievich : War's Unwomanly Face. Vremja publishers, Moscow 2008, ISBN 978-5-9691033-1-3 , pp. 33, 386.
  19. ↑ Inge Deutschkron : I wore the yellow star. dtv, Munich 1987, p. 179 ff., quoted from Atina Grossmann: A Question of Silence. The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers . In: October , spring 72 (1995): Berlin 1945: War and Rape "Liberators Take Liberties" , p. 53 f.
  20. ↑ Norman M. Naimark: The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Belknap, Cambridge 1995, ISBN 0-674-78405-7 , pp. 79 and 90-97.
  21. ^ Atina Grossmann: A Question of Silence. The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers . In: October , spring 72 (1995): Berlin 1945: War and Rape “Liberators Take Liberties” , pp. 55–59.
  22. ^ Naimark, Russians in Germany , p. 133.
  23. ↑ Norman M. Naimark: The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Cambridge 1995, pp. 109-115.
  24. ^ Hans-Ulrich Wehler: Deutsche Gesellschaftgeschichte , Vol. 4: From the beginning of the First World War to the founding of the two German states 1914–1949 . CH Beck Verlag, Munich 2003, p. 941.
  25. ↑ Jan Foitzik: The occupation in the light of the international law of war. In: Elke Scherstjanoi (Ed.): Red Army soldiers write from Germany: Letters from the front (1945) and historical analyzes. Walter de Gruyter / Saur, 2004, ISBN 3-598-11656-X , p. 382
  26. ↑ Elizabeth Heineman: The Hour of the Woman. Memories of Germany's "Crisis Years" and West German National Identity. In: American Historical Review 101 (1996), No. 2, pp. 354-395.
  27. ↑ Martin Sabrow , Jürgen Danyel, Jan-Holger Kirsch: 50 classics of contemporary history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 3-525-36024-X , p. 148
  28. ^ A b Pascale R. Bos: Feminists Interpreting the Politics of Wartime Rape: Berlin, 1945; Yugoslavia, 1992-1993. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 2006, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 996-1025.
  29. ↑ Helke Sander, Barbara Johr: BeFreier und Befreite: War, rape, children. The time of National Socialism. Frankfurt am Main 2005, foreword; Hans-Heino Ewers, Jana Mikota, Jürgen Reulecke, Jürgen Zinnecker: Memories of war childhood: Spaces of experience, culture of remembrance and history politics from a social and cultural-scientific perspective. Beltz Juventa, 2006, ISBN 3-7799-1729-7 , p. 287
  30. ^ Atina Grossmann: A Question of Silence. The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers. In: October , spring 72 (1995): Berlin 1945: War and Rape “Liberators Take Liberties” , pp. 42–45.
  31. ^ Stuart Liebman, Annette Michelson: After the Fall: Women in the House of the Hangmen. October, Vol. 72, (Spring, 1995) pp. 4-14.
  32. ^ Atina Grossmann: A Question of Silence. The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers. In: October , spring 72 (1995): Berlin 1945: War and Rape "Liberators Take Liberties" , p. 62f. and 45.
  33. ^ Silke Satjukow: Liberation ?: the East Germans and 1945. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2009, ISBN 3-86583-252-0 , p. 7.
  34. ^ Hermann Weber: The GDR 1945-1990. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 2011, ISBN 3-486-70440-0 , p. 152
  35. ↑ Cordula Mahr: War literature from women ?: on the representation of the Second World War in autobiographies of women after 1960. Centaurus Verlag, 2006, ISBN 3-8255-0622-3 , p. 65.
  36. ^ Sascha Kiefer: The German novella in the 20th century: A genre history. Böhlau, Cologne 2010, ISBN 3-412-20582-6 , p. 492
  37. ^ Ivo Bock: Sharply monitored communication: censorship systems in Eastern (Central) Europe (1960s-1980s). Lit Verlag, 2011, ISBN 3-643-11181-9 , p. 418 f.
  38. ↑ Volker Hage (Der Spiegel, January 15, 2001): Literature: The Russians are coming
  39. ↑ Jonathan Shainin (Salon, August 18, 2005): The rape of Berlin ( Memento of February 27, 2014 in the Internet Archive ).
  40. ↑ Mark Jenkins (NPR, July 16, 2009): 'In Berlin,' The Diary Of One Who Stayed.
  41. ↑ Susanne Beyer: 14 days life sentence , Der Spiegel 8/2010
  42. ↑ Miriam Gebhardt: When the soldiers came , Munich 2015, p. 33 .; see also It is not a matter of course to name German victims. Miriam Gebhardt in conversation with Christoph Heinemann , Deutschlandfunk, February 27, 2015.
  43. ↑ Miriam Gebhardt: When the soldiers came. The rape of German women at the end of World War II . DVA, Munich 2015, p. 8f. u. P. 280 f.
  44. ^ J. Robert Lilly: Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe during World War II. ISBN 978-0-230-50647-3 , p. 12.
  45. ^ A b c Carol Harrington: Politicization of Sexual Violence: From Abolitionism to Peacekeeping. Ashgate, London 2010, ISBN 978-0-7546-7458-0 , pp. 80–81, limited preview in Google Book Search
  46. ↑ Miriam Gebhardt: When the soldiers came. The rape of German women at the end of World War II . DVA, Munich 2015, p. 37 f.
  47. ^ Peter Schrijvers: The Crash of Ruin: American Combat Soldiers in Europe During World War II . New York: New York University Press 1998, ISBN 0-8147-8089-X , p. 183.
  48. ^ White, Osmar (1996). Conquerors' Road: An Eyewitness Report of Germany 1945 . Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-83051-6 , pp. 97-98.
  49. ↑ Fehrenbach, Heide (2005). Race After Hitler: Black Occupation Children in Postwar Germany and America . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press , ISBN 978-0-691-11906-9 , p. 64.
  50. ^ Marc Hillel, L'Occupation Française en Allemagne, 1945–49. Saint-Armand-Montrand 1983, pp. 84, 108-111, cited therein. based on Perry Biddiscombe: Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the US Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948. In: Journal of Social History , Vol. 34, No. 3, (2001), p. 635.
  51. ^ Jill Stephenson: Hitler's Home Front: Württemberg under the Nazis. Continuum, London 2006, ISBN 1-85285-442-1 , p. 289.
  52. ↑ Norman M. Naimark: The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts) 1995, ISBN 0-674-78405-7 , p. 106.
  53. ↑ a b Miriam Gebhardt: When the soldiers came. The rape of German women at the end of World War II . DVA, Munich 2015, p. 38.