Techniques of propaganda and manipulation of opinion

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The following article provides an overview of various propaganda and opinion manipulation techniques .

classification

Henry T. Conserva

Henry T. Conserva assigns 89 selected techniques to seven types in his Handbuch der Propagandatechnik 89, each of which corresponds to a chapter:

1. Logical errors

2. Diversion and Evasion

3. Appealing to the Emotions

4. Using Falsehoods and Trickery

5.Use of human behavioral tendencies, mental capacities and processes (Playing on Human Behavioral Tendencies, Mental Capacities and Processes)

6.Speaking or Writing Styles

7. Reason or Common Sense.

Psychological references

A number of techniques are classified, analyzed and interpreted psychologically, for example in political psychology , mass psychology , social psychology and cognitive psychology , which investigates cognitive biases .

Logic and rhetoric

Many of these techniques are logically categorized as so-called fallacies , since propagandists use arguments that are psychologically effective but not necessarily logically valid. The same or similar techniques are also analyzed as bogus arguments in the theory of reasoning .

In rhetoric and dialectics they were and are represented as sophisms , methods of rabulism and eristic stratagems (cf. Schopenhauer's eristic dialectic ).

There are also overlaps with the area of rhetorical stylistic devices in the linguistic design of literary and non-literary texts (speeches).

Similarities

The commonalities of all techniques are: the emotionalizing suggestion, the appeal to basic needs, instincts and / or the values ​​and myths of society, the lack of reference to reality, the simplification, the abbreviation or omission of the rational analysis, the elimination of contradiction, doubt and Dialogue, the friend-foe scheme, the claim to universal validity.

A necessary condition for the effect of the propaganda is that it does not appear as propaganda, but as factual information or as an ethically justified value judgment.

Individual techniques of propaganda

The following techniques are identified in the mostly English language presentations:

Ad hominem

Ad hominem is a Latin expression that denotes the technique in a dispute to criticize the personal characteristics of the opponent instead of refuting his arguments. The untruth of the opinion represented should follow from the negatively characterized characteristics of the person.

Ad nauseam

The Latin expression ad nauseam denotes the tireless and "infinite" ( ad infinitum ) repetition of an assertion, especially in the form of a simple and catchy slogan or a political catchphrase . These are repeated until they are accepted as truth or no one contradicts them anymore.

Aestheticization

Actually ugly or cruel facts are processed in the representation in such a way that they appear aesthetically appealing and fascinating. Images of war events are selected in such a way that the reality of the war cannot be perceived. "This is achieved, for example, through the use of light, colors, music, certain camera settings, the arrangement of the image objects or the use of image motifs from art, nature, everyday life and advertising that are generally perceived as beautiful."

Agenda setting

By choosing a topic and setting priorities, the media not only influence what people think about certain topics, but to an even greater extent what people think about. Agenda setting means the "ability [of the news media] to influence the importance attached to issues on the public agenda". When a message is covered frequently and in a prominent position, the topic appears more important to the audience. Conversely, certain topics are not noticed or considered less important because they are not or only marginally presented in the media. The setting of topics in the media (media agenda) is partly influenced by setting topics in the political area (political agenda), by assessing the interests of the population (public agenda) and by leading media (intermedia agenda setting).

Fear generation

Methodical generation of fear is also called appeal to fear , fear appeal or argumentum ad metum. Appeals to fear seek support by creating fear and panic in the consumer, but also in the population.

Fear is created by creating terrifying and exaggerated rumors of imminent danger. Since aggression usually arises from the feeling of being threatened, the fear of losing property or even one's own life increases the willingness to conflict. Fear turns into anger and hatred. “So it is extremely effective to create a state in which the external threat is omnipresent. This happens, for example, through the constant repetition of the magnitude of the danger and the threat posed by the enemy. ” Rainer Mausfeld sees the generation of fear as an instrument of power and counts techniques for generating social fear as the tools of power.

Appeal to authority or appeal to authorities / argumentum ad verecundiam

Appeals to authority or the appeal to authorities or experts cite or refer to prominent figures in public life, especially scientists, in order to make positions, ideas, arguments or procedures appear convincing, generally binding, exemplary or valuable.

Appeal to prejudice

One uses charged or emotional terms or stereotypes to give moral value to believing in one's suggestion.

Astroturfing

The usual method is for a few people to pose as a large number of activists advocating a cause. Usually " sock puppets " are used.

Bandwagon

Bandwagon appeals use the follower effect to convince the target group to participate and to take the course that everyone else is supposed to have already taken.

Propaganda to persuade immigrants to move to California, 1876

This technique is related to the exploitation of the natural “ herd instinct ” of humans. It strengthens people's natural desire to be on the winning side.

Poison well

The method of poisoning of the well involves discrediting the source of information, usually a person or institution.

Assertion of fact

Simply presenting ideas and opinions as facts , without making a restriction or giving an explanation and making any doubt about them seem nonsensical, is considered an effective propaganda technique. The cause of the effectiveness is seen in the fact that people are in principle in good faith. In addition, the main effect of the propaganda was already achieved when the message was received as such. This is easier to do with simple assertions than with complicated representations. "Assertions are a quick and easy way to establish oneself in people's consciousness." As an example Magedah Shabo quotes the Nazi slogan "Europe's victory, your prosperity". The factual assertion often has a clearly implicit appeal, as in the California billboard: "Room for Millions of Immigrants".

Appeal to famous people

This type of propaganda appeals to famous people or people who appear attractive and happy. Anne Morelli's principle of war propaganda corresponds to this : "The artists and intellectuals support our cause (Les artistes et intellectuels soutiennent notre cause.)"

Big Lie, the "big lie"

Reference to a historical event, actual or invented ( revisionism) to justify a measure. After the First World War, the stab in the back legend was used to justify the re-militarization and revanchism of the Nazis. Another aspect of the manipulative nature of big lies is that they are easier to believe than small lies.

Decontextualization / isolation / fragmentation

During decontextualization , a message content or an event is removed from its actual context, so that the event is only perceived in isolation. In the case of events (e.g. a violent demonstration), the previous history or the political background is missing. The event or the message can therefore not be classified and interpreted by the recipient. The original context needs to be restored for proper understanding. Decontextualization is a form of information fragmentation.

Sensation control (perception management)

The perception and evaluation of events is indirectly steered in the desired direction, i.e. not through the presentation of facts, but through the control of feelings.

When the dictator Saddam Hussein was apprehended, it was argued that the war could at least capture the dictator and liberate the country. "The image of the capture of Saddam Hussein, which was widespread around the world, became a symbol of the successful military operation of the USA in Iraq and pushed the question of the legality of the war into the background."

Embedded Journalism

The term embedded journalist originally meant the restrictions on the use of journalists under the direction of the military, today the term is used in a more general sense to characterize a journalist who adapts to the given political structures and expectations, i.e. allows himself to be made into the mouthpiece of the government . The structure and functioning of political-media networks in which the journalist is “embedded” has been researched in more detail by Uwe Krüger , among others , and forms part of the modern form of media manipulation .

Cult of favor

In National Socialism, the fallen were role models. In the communist Eastern Bloc countries, war monuments and memorials to the fallen were instrumentalized.

Black and white mistake

Only two choices are presented, promoting the product or idea as the better choice. (e.g. "You are either for us or against us ...").

Cherry picking or selective exercising

Richard Crossman, the British deputy director of the Psychological Warfare Department (PWD) of the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF) during World War II, said propaganda was not a lie, but rather choosing the truth you want and mixing it with some truths that make up the Audience wants to hear.

Classic conditioning

All vertebrates, including humans, respond to classical conditioning . That is, if A is always present, if B is present, and B evokes a physical reaction (e.g. disgust, lust) then the same reaction will occur if object A is presented in the absence of B.

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive biases and their causes

People prefer consistent ideas, harmonious concepts in which all parts fit together. This tendency can be used manipulatively. Let's say a pollster finds that a certain group of people hates his Senator candidate but loves Actor A. They use candidate A's approval from their candidate to change people's minds because people cannot tolerate inconsistency. You are forced to either dislike the actor or to like the candidate.

Normal human

The reference to the “common people” or “normal people” tries to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect common sense. It is designed to gain the audience's trust by communicating in the usual manner of the target audience. Propagandists use common language and

Obama visiting Bagram Airfield.

Behaviors (and dressing their message in personal and audiovisual communication) to try to identify their point of view with that of the average person.

Personality cult

It consists in the exaggeration of an individual , the circumstances are personalized by the glorification of a personality , that is, the structure of a system is presented not as the merit of an epoch but of a person. The political leader is characterized as a genius who is said to perform well that no one else is capable of. The leader figure is often mythicized: as omniscient, immortal and omnipresent, which is shown in public space in statues, monuments, portraits, street names, etc.

Political Correctness

Compliance with the expectations of political correctness can lead to the suppression of issues, the narrowing of the diversity of opinion and the restriction of public discussion.

Glorification

Politicians are portrayed as exemplary people or heroes, wars appear as "good" or just wars that justify all sacrifices. Your own political stance can also be glorified. Anne Morelli's principle of war propaganda corresponds to this : "Our concern has something sacred (Notre cause a un caractère sacré.) "

Demonize

American anti-Japanese depiction in World War II - advertisement for war bonds

Opponents should appear dehumanized . The demonization and dehumanization of the enemy is, as Anne Morelli points out, an essential principle of war propaganda . Since, in Morelli's view, one cannot hate an entire people or country, it is necessary to redirect hatred to a person who represents the country. Through this personification of the country, “the enemy” gets a face and this face can be made the reference point of hatred. To this end, the person is characterized as morally reprehensible, malicious, and mentally ill. Demonization is the counterpart to glorification .

World War I poster by Winsor McCay . Americans are encouraged to subscribe to war bonds called
liberty bonds .

Moralize

Mass media moralizing , by reducing them to decision-makers and stakeholders on perpetrators and victims. You need guilty parties to make the complexity of the world manageable. "So moralizing is related to personalizing and emotionalizing.

dictation

This technique hopes to simplify the decision-making process by using images and words to tell viewers exactly what action needs to be taken and eliminating other possible decisions. Authority figures can be used to give the order, overlapping but not necessarily with the appeal to authority technique. The Uncle Sam picture “I want you” is an example of this technique.

disinformation

The creation or deletion of information from public records in order to misrecord an event or the actions of a person or organization, including the complete falsification of photos, films, broadcasts and sound recordings and printed documents.

Divide and rule, king mechanism

Division and rule in politics and sociology gain and maintain power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into individual parts that individually have less power than those who implement the strategy.

Door-in-the-face technology

Used to increase a person's freedom of acceptance. For example, if a seller wants to sell an item for $ 100 but the public only wants to pay $ 50, the seller first offers the item at a higher price (say, $ 200) and then reduces it Price on $ 100 for the appearance of a good deal.

Dysphemism

A dysphemism is an expression with a negative connotation. It's the opposite of a euphemism.

euphemism

A euphemism is a generally harmless word or phrase that is used in place of a phrase that can be perceived as offensive or suggests something unpleasant.

euphoria

Using an event that creates euphoria or happiness, or using an engaging event to raise morale. Euphoria can be created by declaring a holiday, providing luxury items, or setting up a military parade with marching bands and patriotic messages.

exaggeration

An exaggeration is when properties are amplified, coarsened and emphasized so that reality appears distorted.

False allegations

False accusations in public are an expression of aggression, bullying and bullying. Behind a self-portrayal of innocence and purity can hide sadistic impulses that aim to destroy the existence of others.

Fake news

Fake news is sometimes classified in close proximity to terms such as hoax or scam . In April 2017, Facebook presented a working paper with four different forms of information misuse, which Facebook describes as fake news:

  • Information (or Influence) Operations : Activities of governments or non-governmental organizations with the aim of controlling domestic or foreign political sentiments.
  • False News : Messages that purport to be correct but deliberately convey misinformation in order to evoke emotions, attract attention, or deceive.
  • False Amplifiers : the coordinated activity of forged and falsified online accounts with the intention of manipulating political discussions
  • Disinformation : Incorrect or manipulated information and / or content that is intentionally distributed. This can include false news or more subtle methods such as false flag operations , injecting false quotes or narratives into ignorant distributors, or deliberately amplifying misleading information.

Fear, uncertainty and doubt

An attempt to influence public perception by spreading negative and dubious / incorrect information that undermines credibility.

Appeal to patriotism

An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that it becomes more patriotic or in some way useful to a group, country, or idea. The sense of patriotism with which this technique seeks to inspire need not necessarily interfere with or omit the ability to rationally examine the matter in question.

The Finnish Maiden - personification in terms of Finnish nationalism

Foot-in-the-door technology

Often used by recruiters and salespeople. For example, someone goes up to the victim and lights them a flower or gives the victim a small gift. The victim says thank you, and now the impostor asks for a greater favor. The unwritten social contract between the victim and the perpetrator results in the victim feeling obliged to reciprocate by agreeing to do the bigger favor or buy the more expensive gift.

Framing

Framing is the construction of an interpretive framework through which factual content is pre-interpreted. This frame of interpretation often becomes effective in the linguistic form of the representation, both in the metaphor. According to Elisabeth Wehling, framing is an inevitable process of selective influence on the individual perception of the meanings that are assigned to words or phrases, but this process can be made consciously and consciously or unconsciously controlled manipulatively.

Gas lighting

When gas Lighting persistent denial, deception, contradiction and lies are in the target person or group generate doubt, hoping to get them to put their own memory, their perception, their reason and standards in question.

Gish gallop

Bombarding a political opponent with intrusively complex questions or criticisms during a debate so that he does not have the opportunity to go into all the details that make him appear incompetent.

Atrocity propaganda

Atrocity propaganda is a form of political propaganda in which one tries to defame an opponent by attributing crimes or atrocities that were invented or not committed by him or by deliberately distorting and thus scandalizing actions taken by him . It is a frequent means of psychological warfare and can be used in war to motivate one's own armed forces and population or to influence the world public.

Invalid generalization

Inadmissible generalizations are usually conveyed through emotionally appealing words that are applied to a product or an idea but do not represent concrete arguments or analyzes. This technique has also been known as the PT Barnum effect. (e.g. the advertising campaign slogan "Ford has a better idea!")

Contact debt

This technique is used to convince a target audience to disapprove of an action or idea by indicating that the idea is popular with groups that are hated, feared, or despised by the target audience. So, if a group supporting a particular policy believes that undesirable, subversive, or disdainful people are supporting the same policy, the members of the group can change their original position. This is one form of misleading inference that says that AX contains and is called BX, so A = B. The term was originally introduced in the post-war period to criticize allegations of association with communism.

Half-truth

Half a truth is a deceptive statement that contains some element of truth. There are different forms: the statement can be partially true, the statement can be completely true but only part of the whole truth, or it can use a deceptive element, e.g. to deceive, evade, accuse or misrepresent the truth.

Information overload

Emma Briant characterizes this technique as follows:

  • " Information overload can have the same effect as secrecy and is certainly to be classified as more effective in the short term and for today's democracies."
  • "When information overload occurs, there is a high probability that the quality of decisions will be impaired."
  • “The flood of information generated by modern technology [...] threatens to make the recipient passive. Overwork leads to a lack of willingness to get involved. "

This technique is also presented by Rainer Mausfeld as being fundamental to modern mass communication, as it becomes dull and spreads apathy. It is related to overstimulation . It leads to protective and defense mechanisms of the psyche for the suppression of information, such as repression , isolation, regression , projection , introjection , sublimation , the formation of fantasies, denial . These protective mechanisms form an effective basis for manipulation.

Deliberate inaccuracy

The generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience can provide their own interpretations. The intent is to move audiences using undefined phrases without checking their validity or attempting to determine their appropriateness or application. The intent is to get people to draw their own interpretations rather than just being presented with an explicit idea. When trying to “find out” the propaganda, the audience does not judge the ideas presented. Their validity, appropriateness and application can still be taken into account.

Labeling

A euphemism is used when the propagandist is trying to increase the perceived quality, credibility, or credibility of a particular ideal. Dysphemism is used when the intent of the propagandist is to discredit the perceived quality, to violate the perceived justice of the individual. By creating a “label,” “category,” or “faction” of a population, it is much easier to set an example of these larger bodies as they can elevate or defame the person without incurring legal defamation . Labeling can be viewed as a subset of guilt by association, another logical fallacy.

Change in the acceptance limit

When a person's message is beyond the acceptable limits of an individual and a group, most techniques create a psychological reactance (simply listening to the argument makes the message even less acceptable). There are two techniques you can use to increase acceptance levels. First, you can take an even more extreme position that makes more moderate positions appear more acceptable. This is similar to the door on the face. Alternatively, you can moderate your own position up to the limit of the acceptance range and then slowly move over time to the position previously held.

“The Conquest or Arrival of Hernan Cortes in Veracruz”, 1951, Palacio Nacional, Mexico City. Diego Rivera's political murals are a reinterpretation of the Leyenda negra .

Emotionally charged language

Certain words and phrases with strong emotional implications are used to influence the audience, e.g. B. by using the word "reforms" rather than a more neutral word like "changes".

Social isolation or privilege

Used to attract members to a cult or ideology by having a group of people cut a person off from their existing social support and completely replace them with members of the group. These deliberately bombard the person with affection in order to keep them isolated in order to manipulate their beliefs and their value system.

Lies and deceit

Lies and deception can be the basis of many propaganda techniques, including ad homimen arguments, big lie, defamation, door in the face, half-truth, naming, or any other technique based on dishonesty or deception. “In times of war, information is difficult or impossible to check for truthfulness. That makes it easy for warring parties to get the public on a war course by spreading false information. "

Militainment

This is about the "cooperation between the military and media companies in the production of war films, series, documentaries or computer war games." This gives the military considerable opportunities to influence the representation of war and wars and at the same time increases the aesthetic appeal and the honorable character of the war. “Scenes that could damage the reputation of the military don't stand a chance. They have to be rewritten, otherwise publication is not possible. It is difficult for directors who produce without the support of the military: Oliver Stone, for example, took ten years to complete his critical Vietnam film 'Platoon' (1986). "

Make messages effective

Joseph Goebbels said: "The most brilliant propagandistic technique will not be successful if a basic principle is not constantly observed - it has to be limited to a few points and repeated over and over again." This idea is in accordance with the principle of classical conditioning as well as the idea “Stick to your message”.

Anti-Islamic propaganda in Germany, originated during the Turkish wars in the 16th century.

Control of the social environment

An attempt to control the social environment and ideas through the use of social pressure

understatement

It is a type of deception that involves rejection coupled with rationalization in situations where total rejection is implausible.

Virtual war

Term used in reference to Orwell's idea of ​​an invented or artificially kept conflict. In Orwell's dystopian novel "1984", the virtual war serves to stabilize a totalitarian system, to mobilize its forces, to attribute one's privations to the guilt of the enemy, for the sake of security to restrict freedom and freedom of thought and at the same time all citizens on the support of the System to swear. In contrast to this fictional design, according to Mark Danner, virtual wars are only effective in the preparatory phase of conflicts or only part of real conflicts. He is referring to the war on terror .

Newspeak

Propagandists use neologisms to convey a negative or positive opinion to the recipient with the often pictorial word coining.

Non sequitur

A kind of logical fallacy where an argument is drawn to a conclusion that does not justify it. All invalid arguments can be viewed as special cases of non sequitur .

Concealment, willful indeterminacy, confusion

Graham's Hierarchy of Disagreement-en.svg

The generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience can provide their own interpretations. The intent is to influence the audience by using undefined phrases without checking their validity or attempting to determine their appropriateness or correct application. The intent is to get people to come up with their own interpretations rather than just being presented with an explicit idea. When trying to “find out” the propaganda, the audience does not judge the ideas presented. Their validity, appropriateness and application can still be taken into account.

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning refers to learning through imitation. For example, when you watch an attractive person buy products or endorse items, a person learns to buy the product or approve the position. Operant conditioning is the basic principle of advertising campaigns for ad nauseam, tagline, and other repetitions.

simplification

Beneficial generalizations are used to give simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems.

No alternative

Forced reduction of the discussion by using overly simplified phrases or arguments (e.g. "There is no alternative to war.")

Censorship, internet censorship

“One point of view can be conveyed particularly well when another is suppressed.” The starting point for internet censorship are megacorporations such as Google, Facebook, Twitter & Co. These companies are obliged to choose what their users get to see and what Not. Ulrich Teusch : "What stabilizes the system is to be promoted - weed out and rated as fake news, hate speech, Russian propaganda, etc., everything that goes beyond the narrow mainstream framework".

Taking quotations out of context

Selective editing of quotations that can change the meaning. Political documentaries designed to discredit an opponent or other political position often use this technique. The omission of the context (de- contextualization ) mostly serves to insert it into a new context, through which the quotation gets a different meaning (recontextualization).

rationalization

Individuals or groups can use beneficial generalizations to rationalize questionable actions or beliefs. Vague and pleasant expressions are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.

Reductio ad Hitlerum

This maneuver consists in using similarities with Hitler's biography or opinions in order to discredit and defame the opponent . The regular occurrence of this technique is described by Godwin's Law . It is a sub-form of reductio ad absurdum , which, as an analogy, is a form of the wrong conclusion. It is also one of the forms of so-called well poisoning.

Illustration by Rev. Branford Clarke et al. Heroes of the Fiery Cross by Bishop Alma White published in the Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, NJ in 1928.

Diversionary maneuvers

Present data or problems that are convincing but irrelevant to the argument at hand, and then claim that they confirm the argument.

In 1807, William Cobbett wrote how he used red herrings to mislead someone while training dogs to hunt. This is possibly the origin of the name.

Repetition

This is the repetition of a specific symbol or slogan for the audience to remember. This can be in the form of a jingle or an image that is placed on top of almost everything in the picture / scene. This also includes the use of subliminal phrases, images or other content in propaganda.

scapegoat

Assignment of blame to an individual or group, thereby alleviating guilt feelings on the part of those responsible and / or reducing attention from the need to resolve the issue for which the assignment is being made.

Slogans

A tagline is a short, catchy phrase that can include labeling and stereotyping. While slogans can be used to support reasoned ideas, in practice they only act as emotional appeals. Opponents of the US invasion and occupation of Iraq use the slogan "blood for oil" to indicate that the invasion and its human losses were made in order to gain access to Iraqi oil wealth. On the other hand, supporters who believe the US should continue fighting in Iraq use the slogan "cut and run" to make the withdrawal cowardly or weak. In a similar way, the names of the military campaigns, such as “enduring freemdom” or “just cause”, can also be referred to as slogans intended to influence people.

Smut campaigns

A smear campaign is an attempt to damage or question a person's reputation by spreading negative propaganda. It can be applied to individuals or groups. It can contain justiciable cases of defamation , damage to reputation and even character assassination . A similar term is negative campaigning .

Stereotyping and labeling

This technique attempts to instill prejudice in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something that the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or considers undesirable. For example, coverage of a foreign country or social group may focus on the stereotypical traits the reader expects, even though they are far from representing the entire country or group. This coverage often focuses on the anecdotes. In graphic propaganda, including war posters, this could include depicting enemies with stereotypical racial characteristics.

straw man

A straw man argument is an informal fallacy based on a misrepresentation of an opponent's position. To “attack a straw man” means creating the illusion of having refuted a proposal by replacing a superficial similar proposal (the “straw man”) and refuting it without ever refuting the original position.

“The Bulgarian Martyrs”, a painting by the Russian painter Konstantin Makovsky from 1877 . It depicts the rape of Bulgarian women by soldiers of the Ottoman Army during the April Uprising in the previous year. The painting served to mobilize public support for the Russo-Ottoman War (1877–1878) , which was carried out with the express aim of liberating the Bulgarians from the Turkish rule was led.

Referencing

References or recommendations are quotations within or outside the context, which are quoted in particular to support or reject a certain policy, action, a certain program or a certain personality. The reputation or role (expert, public figure, etc.) of the person making the statement is being exploited.

Third person technique

Works on the principle that people are more willing to accept an argument from a seemingly independent source of information than from someone interested in the outcome. It is a marketing strategy that is commonly used by PR companies. She puts a prepared message in the "mouth of the media". Third person technique can take many forms, from hiring journalists to report the organization in a favorable light, to engaging scientists within the organization to present their potentially biased findings to the public. Often astroturf groups or front groups are used to convey the message.

Clichés

A commonly used phrase that sometimes passes by folk wisdom to suppress cognitive dissonance.

transmission

This is a technique in which positive or negative qualities (praise or blame) of one person, entity, object or value are projected onto another in order to gain acceptance for that other person or to discredit them. It evokes an emotional response that prompts the target person to identify with recognized figures of authority. This technique is often very visual and often uses symbols (for example, the swastikas used in Nazi Germany, originally a symbol of health and wealth) that are superimposed on other visual images.

Unspoken assumption

Nationalist slogan “ Brazil , love it or leave it”, which was widely used during the Brazilian military dictatorship (1964–1985).

This technique is used when the concept of propaganda would seem less believable if explicitly stated. Instead, the concept is used repeatedly as an assumption or implied.

Positive attribution

These are words in the target group's value system that create a positive image when assigned to a person or a problem. Peace, hope, happiness, security, wise guidance, freedom, "the truth" etc. are words of virtue. Many regard religiosity as a virtue, which makes associations with that quality effectively useful.

Whataboutism (And what about ...?)

Whataboutism is a variant of the tu quoque . It is based on a fallacy that seeks to discredit an opponent's position by accusing them of hypocrisy and double standards without refuting their argument.

Numbers, statistics and charts

The visual representation of statistics, especially in the form of diagrams, can have a manipulative character. Statistical manipulations include, among others

See also

Individual evidence

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  2. Bussemer Thymian: Psychology of Propaganda | APuZ. Retrieved June 30, 2019 .
  3. Ali Almossawi: An Illustrated Book of Bad argument . The Experiment, 2014, ISBN 978-1-61519-226-7 ( com.ph [accessed April 7, 2019]).
  4. Bo Bennett: Logically Fallacious: The Ultimate Collection of Over 300 Logical Fallacies (Academic Edition) . eBookIt.com, 2017, ISBN 978-1-4566-0737-1 ( com.ph [accessed April 7, 2019]).
  5. ^ Paul Walter, Petra Wenzl: Think critically - argue appropriately: An exercise book . Springer-Verlag, 2015, ISBN 978-3-658-10554-9 ( com.ph [accessed June 30, 2019]).
  6. Albert Mößmer: 64 Wrong conclusions in arguments: Recognizing and avoiding logical and rhetorical wrong turns . BookRix, 2016, ISBN 978-3-7396-3631-3 ( com.ph [accessed June 30, 2019]).
  7. Valentin Zsifkovits: Thinking and acting ethically correctly . LIT Verlag Münster, 2005, ISBN 978-3-8258-8509-0 ( com.ph [accessed June 30, 2019]).
  8. Arthur Schopenhauer : Eristische Dialektik. Haffmans Verlag, 1995, ISBN 3-458-33358-4
  9. ^ Ellul, Jacques (1973). Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes , p. 39-40. Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. Vintage Books, New York. ISBN 978-0-394-71874-3 .
  10. Nicholas J. O'Shaughnessy: Politics and Propaganda: Weapons of Mass Seduction . Manchester University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-7190-6853-9 ( google.de [accessed July 7, 2019]).
  11. Robert Cole, ed. Encyclopedia of Propaganda (3 vol 1998)
  12. ^ Jeff Koob: Ad Nauseam: How Advertising and Public Relations Changed Everything . iUniverse, 2015, ISBN 978-1-4917-5890-8 ( com.ph [accessed April 7, 2019]).
  13. STEVE Dr ESOMBA: ADVERTISING AND THE SPREAD OF BUSINESS, DEMOCRACY AND KNOWLEDGE . Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-4717-3443-4 ( com.ph [accessed April 7, 2019]).
  14. Alexandra Bleyer: Propaganda as an instrument of power: facts, fakes and strategies. An instruction manual . BoD - Books on Demand, 2018, ISBN 978-3-7431-9071-9 ( com.ph [accessed April 7, 2019]).
  15. ^ A b Charles Augustus Maude Fennell: The Stanford Dictionary of Anglicized Words and Phrases . University Press, 1892 ( com.ph [accessed April 7, 2019]).
  16. ^ Douglas Walton: Ad Hominem Arguments . University of Alabama Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-8173-5561-6 , pp. 1-10 ( com.ph [accessed June 26, 2019]).
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