Leyenda negra
The term Leyenda negra , "Black Legend", describes an anti-Spanish view of history that has been widespread since the 16th century, depicting the Spaniards as fanatical, brutal, inhuman, lazy and backward and, in connection with the Spanish dominance in early modern Europe, predominantly by political opponents Northern and Central European countries in various media. The term was coined in 1914 by the historian and sociologist Julián Juderías (1877–1918) and contains the following key points:
- the one-sided denunciation of the crimes committed by Spain, while those of other countries are kept secret or hardly discussed. As an example, the treatment of the natives in South and Central America by the Spaniards versus that of the natives of North America by the Anglo-Saxons or of the natives of Africa by the British, Dutch, French and Belgians can be used.
- the demonization of Spanish institutions and actions compared to their counterparts in other countries. So z. Even today, for example, the view is still common that the Spanish Inquisition alone pursued massive witch hunts, although it often fought against this as superstition , while Protestant clergymen, including Luther , made massive calls to it.
- leaving out positive aspects of Spanish history. For example, reference was made to the works of Las Casas , but it was not appreciated that such a massive criticism of the politics of one's own country in Spain was possible and resulted in positive changes.
- the imprecise, flawed and exaggerated portrayal of Spanish violence. With reference to Las Casas, the declining number of American indigenous people was blamed for Spanish massacres, while the diseases brought in by the Europeans were ignored as an explanation, against which the indigenous people had no immune defense.
- the consideration of Spanish actions detached from the historical context. The conquistadors are measured against modern ethical and moral principles, while the human sacrifices, war campaigns and strictly hierarchical social systems of the Aztecs and Incas are explained with the cultural and temporal context.
definition
The origin of the term »Black Legend« is usually attributed to Julian Juderías , but the actual origin is unknown. At least Emilia Pardo Bazán and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez had already used the term in today's sense before Juderías did, but it was Juderías who spread it and explained the term in his work La Leyenda Negra (1914) as follows:
«[…] The ambiente creado por los relatos fantásticos que acerca de nuestra patria han visto la luz pública en todos los países, las descripciones grotescas que se han hecho siempre del carácter de los españoles como individuos y colectividad o por lo menos la ignorancia sistemática de cuanto es favorable y hermoso en las diversas manifestaciones de la cultura y del arte, las acusaciones que en todo tiempo se han lanzado sobre España fundándose para ello en hechos exagerados, mal interpretados o falsos en su totalidad, y, finalmente, la afirmación contenida en libros al parecer respetables y verídicos y muchas veces reproducida, comentada y ampliada en la Prensa extranjera, de que nuestra Patria constituye, desde el punto de vista de la tolerancia, de la cultura y del progreso polítro. una examento dentico the group de las naciones europeas.
En una palabra, entendemos por leyenda negra, la leyenda de la España inquisitorial, ignorant, fanática, incapaz de figurar entre los pueblos cultos lo mismo ahora que antes, dispuesta siempre a lasrepriones violentas; enemiga del progreso y de las innovaciones; o, en otros términos, la leyenda que habiendo empezado a difundirse en el siglo XVI, a raíz de la Reforma, no ha dejado de utilizarse en contra nuestra desde entonces y más especialmente en momentos críticos de nuestra vida nacional. »
“[…] The atmosphere created by the fantastic stories about our fatherland that have seen the light of day in almost every country; the grotesque descriptions that have been made over and over of the character of the Spaniards as individuals and as a collective; the denial, or at least systematic ignoring, of everything that is beneficial and honorable to us in the various manifestations of our culture and art; the allegations which were always brought against Spain and which for this purpose relied on exaggerated events, poorly interpreted or entirely wrong, and finally the allegation which is contained in books that at first glance seem respectable and true and which are often reproduced , commented and exaggerated in the foreign press that, from the standpoint of tolerance, culture and political progress, our fatherland is a regrettable exception within the group of European nations.
In a word: by Leyenda negra we understand the legend of an inquisitorial Spain, ignorant, fanatical, incapable of surviving among the cultured peoples today as in the past, always ready for violent repression; Enemy of progress and innovation, or, in other words, the legend that began to spread in the 16th century because of the Reformation, has been used against us ever since, especially at critical moments in our state life. "
The second classic work on the subject is Historia de la Leyenda Negra hispano-americana ("History of the Spanish-American Black Legend") by Rómulo D. Carbia . Just as Juderías was more concerned with the European side of the legend, the Argentine Carbia devoted himself to the American side. A somewhat more general definition for Carbia is thus:
«[…] Abarca la Leyenda en su más cabal amplitud, es decir, en sus formas típicas de juicios sobre la crueldad, el obscurantismo y la tiranía política. A la crueldad se le ha querido ver en los procedimientos de que se echara mano para implantar la Fe en América o defenderla en Flandes; al obscurantismo, en la presunta obstrucción opuesta por España a todo progreso espiritual ya cualquiera actividad de la inteligencia; ya la tiranía, en las restricciones con que se habría ahogado la vida libre de los españoles nacidos en el Nuevo Mundo ya quienes parecería que se hubiese querido esclavizar sine die . »
“[...] the legend contains in its fully valid extension, so in its typical form, judgments about the cruelty, about the enlightenment hostility and about the political tyranny. In relation to the cruelty that was wanted to be seen in the procedure alleged to have been used to establish the Faith in America or to defend it in Flanders ; With regard to the hostility to the Enlightenment, with which Spain is alleged to have prevented all intellectual progress and all spiritual activity; and, as for tyranny, in the constraints alleged to have stifled the free life of the New World-born Spaniards, for whom it seems as if they wanted to enslave them indefinitely. "
After Juderías and Carbia, many others have also used and delimited the term. In 1944 the American Council on Education tried to define him in a long report in which he expressed his concern about the anti-Hispanic prejudice of North American teaching materials and education.
“The 'Black Legend' is a term long used by Spanish writers to denote the ancient body of propaganda against the Iberian peoples which began [sic] in sixteenth century England and has since been a handy weapon for the rivals of Spain and Portugal in the religious, maritime, and colonial wars of those four centuries. ”
"The Black Legend" is a term that has long been used by Spanish writers to denote the ancient propaganda against the Iberian peoples that began in England in the 16th century and has since been used as a welcome weapon by opponents of Spain and Portugal in the religious, naval and colonial wars of the last four centuries. "
In his book Tree of Hate (1971), Philip Wayne Powell defines the Black Legend as follows:
“The basic premise of the Black Legend is that Spaniards have shown themselves, historically, to be uniquely cruel, bigoted, tyrannical, obscurantists, lazy, fanatical, greedy, and treacherous; that is, that they differ so much from other peoples in these traits that Spaniards and Spanish history must be viewed and understood in terms not ordinarily used in describing and interpreting other people. "
“The basic premise of the Black Legend is that, historically speaking, Spaniards would have shown themselves uniquely cruel, bigoted, tyrannical, anti-Enlightenment , lazy, fanatical, greedy and treasonous; That means that they would differ so much from other peoples in these traits that Spaniards and Spanish history would have to be viewed and understood with a concept in which other people are usually not described and explained. "
A younger author, Manuel Fernández Álvarez , defined the Black Legend as follows:
«Cuidadosa distorsión de la historia de un pueblo, realizada por sus enemigos, para mejor combatirle. Y una distorsión lo más monstruosa posible, a fin de lograr el objetivo marcado: la descalificación moral de ese pueblo, cuya supremacía hay que combatir por todos los medios. "
“Careful distortion of the history of a people, invented by their enemies to better fight them. And as monstrous a distortion as possible in order to achieve the pursued goal: the moral disqualification of this people, whose superiority is to be fought with all means. "
The philosopher Julián Marías regards the Black Legend as something very unusual in universal history:
«La Leyenda Negra consiste en que, partiendo de un punto concreto, que podemos suponer cierto, se extiende la condenación y descalificación de todo el país a lo largo de toda su historia, incluida la futura . En eso consiste la peculiaridad original de la Leyenda Negra. En el caso de España, se inicia a comienzos del siglo XVI, se hace más densa en el siglo XVII, rebrota con nuevo ímpetu en el XVIII —será menester preguntarse por qué— y reverdece con cualquier pretexto, sin prescribir jamás. »
“The Black Legend, with a starting point that we might presume to be true, spreads the condemnation and disqualification of the entire country throughout its history, including future ones . This is what makes the Black Legend unique. In the case of Spain it begins at the beginning of the 16th century, it thickens in the 17th century, sprouts again with renewed vigor in the 18th - it should be asked why - and sprouts again under any pretext without ever becoming statute-barred. "
But it is important to highlight a point on which most historians agree, and which the British historian William S. Maltby has put very well:
“The Black Legend may not constitute a legitimate or justifiable point of view, but it is necessary to recall that it is a legend and not a myth. It sprang, as legends do, from actual events, and these cannot be ignored in the interests of partisanships. Spaniards committed grave wrongs, but so did men of other nations [...] ”
“The Black Legend may not be a legitimate or justified point of view, but it must be remembered that it is a legend, not a myth. Like all legends, it arose from real events and these must not be ignored out of partisanship. Spaniards have committed grave misdeeds, but this is exactly what men of other nations have done [...] "
Of course, there are also historians who deny the existence of the Leyenda Negra . The denial of the existence of the black legend was recognized by Maltby as part of the black legend itself as early as 1971, which María Elvira Roca Barea also sees in her book Imperiofobia y leyenda negra (2016). In recent years, for example, the historians Alfredo Alvar , Ricardo García Cárcel , Lourdes Mateo Bretos and Carmen Iglesias have claimed that this legend does not exist objectively, but that it is merely a matter of the perception of the Spaniards' own appearance abroad. The French historian Pierre Chaunu represents the origin of this idea. Carmen Iglesias:
«La‹ leyenda negra ›es por así decir, la imagen exterior de España tal como España la percibe […] La leyenda negra consiste, por tanto, en los rasgos negativos —que son objetivamente los más repetidos— que la conciencia española descubre en la imagen de ella misma. "
"The" Black Legend "is, so to speak, the image of Spain abroad, as Spain perceives it [...] The Black Legend consists in the negative traits - objectively these are the most frequently repeated - that the Spanish consciousness in the image of Spain discovered. "
García Cárcel even completely denies the existence of the legend in his book La leyenda negra ,
«Ni leyenda, en tanto en cuanto en cuanto el conjunto de opiniones negativas de España tuvieran no pocos fundamentos históricos, ni negra, dado que el tono nunca fue constant ni uniform. Abundan los grises, pero la coloración de estas opiniones estuvo siempre determinada por los colores contrapuestos de lo que aquí hemos llamado leyenda rosa. »
“Neither legend, since the totality of negative opinions about Spain had quite a few historical bases, nor black, since the tenor was never constant or even. There are shades of gray in abundance, but the coloring of these opinions has always been determined by the contrasting colors, namely by what we have called the pink legend here. "
For the historian and Hispanist Henry Kamen , the term "black legend" has not existed in the Anglo-Saxon cultural area for many years, although it actually persists in Spain because of internal political questions. Kamen's position and his book Imperio were heavily criticized by the writer Arturo Pérez-Reverte and the ambassador and intellectual José Antonio Vaca de Osma . According to Vaca de Osma, Kamen is twisting arguments, repeating anti-Spanish clichés and contradicting himself. The historian Joseph Pérez also believes that the Black Legend no longer exists, although remnants can still be found here and there, since the prejudices about Spain are indistinguishable from those about other countries.
precursor
Origin in Italy
The Hispanist Sverker Arnoldsson from the University of Gothenburg sees in his book La leyenda negra. Estudios sobre sus orígenes (»The Black Legend. Investigation of its Origin«) the origin of the Black Legend in medieval Italy - in contrast to other historians before him, who locate it in the 16th century. Arnoldsson bases his thesis on studies by Benedetto Croce and Arturo Farinelli and says that Italy was largely hostile to Spain in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. He divides the black legend in Italy into two levels: the older, at the beginning of the 14th century, anti-Catalan or anti-Aragonese, and a newer, anti-Spanish, which developed from 1500 and, in his opinion, has prevailed.
Arnoldsson's view has been partly supported and partly questioned by other historians to this day. The criticism is based on the following points:
- The fact that the first writings against the Spaniards were written in Italy is not sufficient reason to recognize the origin there: it is a normal reaction of a society against a foreign power that has conquered it.
- The Black Legend has a certain tradition that did not exist in the case of Italy, as the reaction was directed against the new presence of Spanish troops.
- Since the 15th and 16th centuries there have been many in Italy who are said to have admired Spain, and mainly its king, Ferdinand the Catholic .
The American historian Maltby also claims that the link between the Italian criticism and the canon of Black Legends is missing in the Netherlands and England . The Spanish historian Roca Barea accepts this Italian origin, but in her opinion that criticism was part of the general disdain of the Italians of the Renaissance towards everything foreign, not only towards Spaniards, but also towards Germans and others.
The rejection of the "Catalans"
In its first form, anti-Catalan or anti- Aragonese , the black legend begins with the supremacy of the Aragonese crown in certain areas of Italy in the 13th century. The presence of Aragonese princes, courtiers, soldiers and mercenaries (even pirates) in Italy leads to a negative attitude of the local society towards everything foreign, mainly on the part of the domestic elite, which see themselves as heirs of Ancient Rome. The Spanish hidalgos are beginning to be known as "coarse, ignorant, without intellectual curiosity" and as ceremonious to the point of ridiculousness.
The proliferation of the Aragonese in southern Italy from the year 1300 coincided with the boom in trade in Barcelona and Valencia, in competition with the northern Italian cities, mainly in the markets of the western Mediterranean. The reaction is again the spread of the negative stereotypes of greed and deceit among Catalan traders.
A third point, how the crown of Aragon and thus the entire Iberian peninsula are perceived by the Italians, is the immorality and shameless sensuality that they experienced at the papal court of Calixt III. and his nephew, Alexander VI. - the notorious Borgia popes, both originally from Valencia, with whose names countless legends and anecdotes are associated - see as proven. The Aragonese court in Naples is also seen in the same light as the courtesans from Valencia, who are famous throughout Italy.
Ultimately, the non-Christian elements, mainly the Jewish and the Arab influence, are met with suspicion. "Centuries of mixture of Spaniards with Orientals and Africans plus Jewish and Islamic influence on Spanish culture resulted in the widespread view that the Spaniards were an inferior race of dubious faith." The Jews, expelled from Spain in 1492, come to Italy in great numbers where " Marrane " and "Spaniard" are often viewed as interchangeable; it goes so far that Pope Julius II. his predecessor Alexander VI. insulted as " circumcised Marranos". The Italians' hostility to the Spaniards came to a head in 1503, after the death of Alexander VI, when the violent persecution of the hated "Catalan" cousins ended with several dead.
Originated in the early modern period
Spain's rise to a great power in the 16th century (see History of Spain # From Mediterranean to World Power ) and its anti-Protestant foreign policy resulted in a propaganda war sparked mainly by Dutch and English pamphleteers , which actually led to the creation of the Leyenda negra .
The Spanish Inquisition was the most important and popular subject of the leyenda negra in the 16th century. The Inquisition already existed in many European countries before it was introduced by Ferdinand II in Spain to take action against conversos , converted Jews and Muslims, and to punish them if the sincerity of their conversion to Catholicism was doubted.
Possibly around the above mentioned in Italy and elsewhere. To refute prejudices, but certainly to force the newly emerging nation, divided into regions, different monarchies and different religions, the Catholic kings Isabella I and Ferdinand II issued an edict that gave all Jews the choice of either baptizing themselves leave or leave the country. About 50,000 Jews were baptized. When it became clear that many Jews wanted to emigrate, the already harsh provisions of the decree were no longer observed. Many of the emigrants were robbed of their fortunes and had to leave the country penniless. About 20,000 Jews died in the confusion of displacement (see also anti-Judaism # Spain ). Quite a few Conversos were outwardly baptized as Christians and attended mass, but inwardly did not adhere to the dogmas of the church, but to the traditional Jewish ceremonies and dietary regulations , married one another, secretly visited the synagogue and did not raise their children alone in the Catholic but in the Jewish faith. The first Archbishop of Granada , Hernando de Talavera , sought religious instruction for the predominantly Muslim population, the Arabic language skills of his clergy and translations of catechism and hymns. He opposed the inquisition and the application of pressure. In 1499, however, the Archbishop of Toledo Jiménez de Cisneros enforced coercive measures and reprisals against Muslims, but not only against them: The approximately 50,000 Jews who were baptized in the course of the Reconquista were called by the cristianos viejos , the ancient Christians cristianos nuevos or Marranos and called for their racial discrimination ( limpieza de sangre ). At the instigation of Cisneros, 4,000 Moors were publicly baptized in Toledo on December 18, 1499 and the Koran was burned in Granada. An incomplete list of names from Granada reports more than 9,000 people who were baptized in panic. In 1502 an edict officially took away the religious freedom granted to Muslims ten years earlier in the deed of surrender . All conversos (more than 300,000 Jews and Moors who had converted to the Catholic faith) were now exposed to a deadly distrust.
Some of the key contributions to the legend came from two Protestants: John Foxe , author of the Book of Martyrs (1554), and Reginaldo González de Montes , author of the Exposición de algunas mañas de la Santa Inquisición Española ( German, Report on some lists of the Holy Spanish Inquisition ', 1567).
Spanish self-criticism also contributed to the legend. The Spanish system of the encomienda and the repartimiento has repeatedly been the subject of criticism and polemics , especially by Dominicans . In 1511 the Dominican Antonio de Montesino held a sensational sermon in Santo Domingo against the cruel treatment of the indigenous people: With what right and what justice do you hold these Indians in such cruel and terrible servitude? With what authority have you waged such detestable wars against these people who have lived quietly and peacefully in their lands, and where you have destroyed countless of them with death and unheard of havoc? How can you keep them so oppressed and weighed down without giving them food and curing their diseases, consequences of the excessive work that you force them to do and through which they die away from you, or rather, you kill them for gold every day to dig and acquire?
This cast doubt on the legitimacy of the Spanish colonization of America, which caused quite a stir. The king and general of the order publicly reprimanded Montesino, but he did not bow. The controversy could not be limited to the theological-moral level, but represented a political issue, the consequence of which was the laws of Burgos in December 1512 : It stipulated that the indigenous people should be treated as free people and converted to the Catholic faith.
In 1542 the Dominican Bartolomé de las Casas (1484 / 85–1566) published his Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias ( Eng ., Brief Report on the Devastation of the West Indian Countries') - a polemical pamphlet, the excesses and habitually committed atrocities during denounced colonization, in which he compared the indigenous people with defenseless lambs and made the Spaniards responsible for the murder of numerous Arawaks on the island of La Española . This script was translated into different languages and found widespread use in the hostile countries with Spain. The fact that a Spaniard publicly circulated such accusations was seen there as evidence of their truthfulness.
Another early source is Girolamo Benzoni's book Historia del Mondo Nuovo ( Eng ., History of the New World); it was first published in the Republic of Venice in 1565 .
The brutal Spanish suppression of the uprising in the Netherlands in the last third of the 16th century gave the leyenda negra further nourishment, especially the governorship of the "iron duke" Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba (term of office 1567–1573) , which was criticized across Europe . In 1576, for example, Spanish troops attacked Antwerp and looted it for three days, an act that went down in history as the " Spanish frenzy ". The soldiers ransacked the city, demanded money from the citizens and burned the houses of those who did not pay. The Dutch opponent of the Spaniards, William of Orange , broke out a propaganda battle against Spanish politics, which was successful beyond the borders of the Netherlands, especially in England , which was also Protestant , where the narrative was taken up to fight against Spain support.
Another voice in the narrative was Antonio Pérez , who fled to England after his overthrow as King Philip II's secretary and in 1594 published some diatribes against the Spanish monarchy under the title Relaciones (Eng. "Reports").
The distorted depiction of the imprisonment of the mentally unstable and cruelty-prone Prince Don Carlos (1545–1568) by his father, King Philip II, and the subsequent mysterious death of the prince also contributed to the Leyenda negra . The capture and death of Don Carlos inspired Friedrich Schiller in 1787 to write Don Carlos, Infant von Spanien and later Giuseppe Verdi to the opera Don Carlos . In these works Don Carlos was glorified as a hero of freedom and Philip was branded an inhuman despot.
In the 17th century, when Barcelona , the capital of Catalonia, did not want to be absorbed by the Castilian-dominated Spanish monarchy, many diatribes were produced here.
enlightenment
In the Age of Enlightenment , the established negative image of Spain formed a popular negative slide. This gave the Leyenda negra a renewed and lasting boost. In 1770 Guillaume Thomas François Raynal published L'Histoire philosophique et politique des établissements et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes (Eng., The philosophical and political history of the founding and trade of the two Indies, 'which means the East Indies, i.e. Asia, and the West Indies , i.e. America, were meant).
Romantic travelers
In the 19th century, many writers constructed a mythical Andalusia: Washington Irving , Prosper Mérimée , George Sand , Théophile Gautier , Wassili Botkin and others. a. In their writings, Spain became an orient of the western world (Africa begins in the Pyrenees), an exotic country full of bandits, economic decline, gypsies, ignorance, machismo , matadors , Moors , political chaos, poverty and fanatical religiosity. In music, Georges Bizet with Carmen (1875) and Nikolai Rimski-Korsakow with Capriccio espagnol (1887) contributed to the persistence of this topos.
present
In the 21st century, the black legend lives on particularly strongly in German-speaking countries. In his dissertation, Roland Bernhard has shown that there are still many errors, omissions and exaggerations in German and Austrian school books that go back to the Black Legend. New research results are often not taken into account. The central role of the Indian allies in the conquest of the great empires of the Aztecs and Incas is z. B. continues to be barely mentioned, and the demographic collapse is often attributed to the work of the Spaniards instead of the devastating epidemics that claimed millions of lives due to the poor immune defense of the Indians.
Reception in the United States
In his book Tree of Hate (Ger., Tree of Hate ') described Philip Wayne Powell in 1971 detailed how to Leyenda negra has spread from the 16th century and England in the United States in particular of the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants picked up and was spread. The prejudices against the Spaniards were transferred to the Mexicans in the 19th century and popularized in the mass media. Sometimes they were used to justify wars against Spain or Latin American states, e.g. B. in the Mexican-American War , Spanish-American War or in the colonization of the Philippines after the Filipino-American War , used. In numerous novels and Hollywood films, the Spaniards and Mexicans play the role of the bad guys, which solidified the anti-Spanish view of history among broad sections of the population.
Empirical counter-findings
In 1937, Marcel Bataillon , in his book Erasme et L'Espagne (Eng., Erasmus and Spain ') , demonstrated the influence that the humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam and his ideas enjoyed in Spain, which questioned the stereotype of unbroken fanatical Catholicism.
Genetic studies refute the postulate of the Spanish genocide in the Caribbean. An analysis of the mitochondria and Y chromosomes showed that 62% of Puerto Ricans have indigenous ancestry and over 70% also have European origins.
Leyenda pink
In Spain there were u. a. Tendencies not only to fight the Leyenda negra , but also to let one's own history appear in a particularly favorable light. This view of history was sometimes referred to as Leyenda pink or also as White Legend . However, it has hardly had any effect outside of Spain.
literature
- Alfredo Alvar: La leyenda negra . Akal, Madrid 1997, ISBN 84-460-0797-5 (Spanish).
- Sverker Arnoldsson: La Leyenda Negra . Estudios sobre sus orígenes. Göteborgs Universitets Årsskrift, Göteborg 1960 (Spanish).
- Roland Bernhard: History myths about Hispanic America . Discovery, conquest and colonization in German and Austrian textbooks of the 21st century. Göttingen 2013, ISBN 978-3-8471-0204-5 ( vr.de [PDF]).
- Rómulo D. Carbia: Historia de la leyenda negra hispano-americana . Marcial Pons Historia, Madrid 2004, ISBN 84-95379-89-9 (Spanish, first edition: 1943).
- Ricardo García Cárcel, Lourdes Mateo Bretos: La leyenda negra . Altamira, Madrid 1990, ISBN 84-7969-013-5 (Spanish).
- Ricardo García Cárcel: La leyenda negra . Altaya, Barcelona 1997, ISBN 84-487-0905-5 (Spanish).
- Friedrich Edelmayer : The “Leyenda negra” and the circulation of anti-Catholic-anti-Spanish prejudices. In: European History Online . Institute for European History (Mainz) , 2011, accessed on July 13, 2011 .
- Charles Gibson (Ed.): The Black Legend . Anti-Spanish Attitudes in the Old World and the New. Knopf, New York 1971, ISBN 0-394-30289-3 (English).
- Julián Juderías : La Leyenda Negra . Junta de Castilla y León, Salamanca 2003, ISBN 84-9718-225-1 (Spanish, first edition: 1914).
- William S. Maltby: The Black Legend in England . The Development of anti-Spanish Sentiment, 1558-1660. Duke University Press, Durham NC 1971, ISBN 0-8223-0250-0 (English, first edition: 1968).
- Julián Marías: España Inteligible . Razón Histórica de las Españas. Alianza Editorial, 2006, ISBN 84-206-7725-6 (Spanish, first edition: 1985).
- Miguel Molina Martínez: La leyenda negra . Nerea, Madrid 1991, ISBN 84-86763-42-8 (Spanish).
- María Elvira Roca Barea: Imperiofobia y leyenda negra . Roma, Rusia, Estados Unidos y el Imperio español (= Biblioteca de Ensayo / Serie mayor . Volume 87 ). Ediciones Siruela, Madrid 2016, ISBN 978-84-16854-23-3 (Spanish).
- Ingrid Schulze Schneider: La leyenda negra de España . Propaganda en la guerra de Flandes (1566–1584). Editorial Complutense, Madrid 2008, ISBN 978-84-7491-928-8 (Spanish). ( Review by Britta Tewordt at H-Soz-u-Kult , November 2010.)
- Judith Pollmann: A natural enmity . Origin and function of the black legend about Spain in the Netherlands, 1560–1581. In: Franz Bosbach (Ed.): Feindbilder. The representation of the opponent in political journalism in the Middle Ages and modern times (= Bayreuth historical colloquia ). tape 6 . Böhlau / Cologne a. a. 1992, ISBN 3-412-03390-1 , pp. 73-93 .
- Konrad W. Swart: The Black Legend during the Eighty Years War . In: John S. Bramley, Ernest H. Kossmann (Eds.): Some Political Mythologies. Papers Delivered to the Fifth Anglo-Dutch Historical Conference (= Britain and the Netherlands ). tape 5 . Nijhoff, The Hague 1975, ISBN 90-247-1763-9 , pp. 36-57 (English).
- José Antonio Vaca de Osma: El Imperio y la leyenda negra . Rialp, Madrid 2004, ISBN 84-321-3499-6 (Spanish).
- Philip Wayne Powell: Tree Of Hate . Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting United States Relations with the Hispanic World. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque 2008, ISBN 978-0-8263-4576-9 (English).
Remarks
- ↑ Arnoldsson names Julián Juderías, Rómulo D. Carbia, Escobar López, Manuel Cardenal and Juan Fernández Amador de los Ríos as historians who see the origin in the 16th century.
- ↑ The Italians regarded all Christians along the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula as "Catalans", regardless of whether they were of Catalan origin in the true sense of the word or not; sometimes this name was extended to all residents of the Iberian Peninsula. These "Catalans" were actually subject to the King of Aragon , which is why they were often referred to as "Aragonese" even though they did not come from Aragon itself.
- ↑ A summary of the Black Legend of the Borgia can be found in the following publication: Duran, Eulàlia: The Borja Family . Historiography, Legend and Literature. In: Catalan Historical Review . No. 1 , 2008, ISSN 2013-407X , p. 63–79 (English, raco.cat ).
Individual evidence
- ↑ Español Bouché, Luis: La Leyenda Negra: una denuncia de Julián Juderías (= La Aventura de la Historia . No. 111 ). 2008, p. 56-61 (Spanish). ; Español Bouché, p. 112
- ↑ Juderías (1914), p. 24
- ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: The "Leyenda negra" and the circulation of anti-Catholic-anti-Spanish prejudices. In: European History Online. December 3, 2010, accessed July 13, 2014 .
- ↑ Carbia (1943), pp. 34-35
- ↑ Op. cit. Powell (1985), p. 134; op.cit. García Cárcel (1997), p. 286
- ↑ Powell (1985), p. 11
- ↑ Op. cit. Alvar (1997), p. 5
- ↑ Marías (1985), p. 202; op.cit. Molina Martínez (1991), p. 25
- ↑ Maltby (1968), pp. 10-11
- ↑ Roca Barea (2016), p. 35; Maltby (1971), p. 3
- ↑ Roca Barea (2016)
- ↑ Roca Barea (2016), p. 29
- ↑ Vaca de Osma (2004), p. 208
- ↑ García Cárcel & Mateo Bretos (1990), p. 84, although he later toned down his view: Monumento Blas de Lezo: Hispanofobia y nacionalismo: del pasado al futuro (from 01: 31: 40: 00: 1771) on YouTube , May 6, 2018, accessed on July 8, 2018 (Conferencia organizada por la Asociacion Monumento a Blas de Lezo e impartida por Dª Elvira Roca, D. Stanley G. Payne y D. Ricardo García Cárcel, moderada por D. Hermann Tertsch en Madrid el 25 Enero 2018.).
- ↑ Henry Kamen. In: El Mundo. August 21, 2001, Retrieved September 6, 2014 (Spanish).
- ↑ Vaca de Osma (2004)
- ^ Arturo Pérez-Reverte: La Historia, la sangría y el jabugo. (No longer available online.) In: XLSemanal. September 4, 2005, archived from the original on February 7, 2009 ; Retrieved September 6, 2014 (Spanish). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ José Antonio Vaca de Osma: La verdad del Imperio Español. (No longer available online.) In: Alfa y Omega. Archived from the original on February 18, 2012 ; Retrieved September 6, 2014 (Spanish). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Pérez, pp. 197-199; Agencia EFE: El hispanist Joseph Pérez da por superada la “leyenda negra” de España. (No longer available online.) In: Google News. November 20, 2009, archived from the original on January 29, 2014 ; Retrieved May 1, 2010 (Spanish).
- ↑ Alvar (1997), p. 7
- ↑ Maltby (1968), p. 7
- ↑ Roca Barea (2016), p. 173
- ↑ a b c d Arnoldsson (1960), p. 11
- ^ Mörner, Magnus: Sverker Arnoldsson (1908-1959) . In: The Hispanic American Historical Review . tape 60 , no. 1 , 1960, p. 72-74 , JSTOR : 2509796 (English).
- ↑ Bernhard (2013), pp. 117-149, 169-188
