Media manipulation

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The term media manipulation is used in two ways:

  • It is mostly used to denote an actual or perceived manipulation of public opinion by the media.
  • The term is also used to describe a manipulation of the media with the aim of a certain publication. Delimitation: If this is done not as manipulation, but as information in a transparent manner and in accordance with journalistic trade rules, one speaks of press work or media work .

Manipulation by the media

Manipulation by the media describes a one-sided, tendentious and / or distorted representation of facts and events in the mass media . This manipulation can be carried out by groups of people who usually disseminate information professionally, e.g. B. by journalists , photographers, documentators or news producers, increasingly also by non-professional authors and image creators via well-read pages on the Internet (Twitter, social networks, Wikipedia, etc.). The manipulation already takes place through a one-sided preselection of a topic, then through its placement and finally through the type of reporting. This creates a distorted perception for the recipient . Media manipulation is differentiated from counterfeiting , for example the subsequent manipulation of photographs or videos or the creation of interviews .

The media's demand for objectivity , as a neutral and independent standpoint, naturally and sometimes unintentionally, reaches its limits. It is (journalistically) not possible to report on all existing events; a coherent presentation inevitably goes hand in hand with a preselection of the facts (according to e.g. Newton, 1989). A manipulation allegation can therefore, in addition to justified criticism, also contain the character of a battle term. A certain “manipulation” is difficult to avoid for technical reasons.

Examples

selection

A fundamental element of any reporting is the selection of information by the editorial team. Steffens says: "Over 99% of all messages (...) never reach the reader's eye because they are sorted out as too insignificant, too fragmentary, too polemical or - according to the prevailing ideas - too immoral."

It is impossible for journalists to write about all available information and news and at the same time report on selected facts in a coherent way - this is a practical limit to the neutrality of the media: a restriction and orientation is inevitable. Which news is worth printing is also decided by the selection of other journalists and authors. An event that is reported on is more reportable simply because it is reported on elsewhere. To Niklas Luhmann : "Communication is so amplified a process that selectively responds to selections selectivity."

According to Schulz, the selection leads to a “norm of reality” because the question of a “true picture” of reality is a metaphysical one and cannot be answered. By selecting information in the media, recipients can easily create a distorted image that is perceived as manipulation. Even if the individual reports correspond to the facts, the mass can achieve the effect of disinformation .

Günter Wallraff , on the other hand, describes in his book "Der Aufmacher" the manipulations of the Bild newspaper that he perceived as the "Bild-System". Targeted manipulation through deliberate one-sided reporting contradicts the principles of independent journalistic reporting and journalistic ethics as well as the rules of the German Press Council .

Weighting of the information

Another challenge for journalists is the weighting they attach to different positions and arguments. All relevant positions and arguments had to be shown and weighted to show that the arguments have different relevance and seriousness . If this does not succeed, one speaks of tendentious reporting.

This is understood to mean a distorted or incorrectly weighted presentation of facts, which violates journalistic ethics. The aim and severity of non-objective reporting are controversial in many countries, as they have both practical and theoretical causes and prejudice effects. However, the Swiss Press Council, for example, states: “From the 'Declaration of the duties and rights of journalists', no professional ethical obligation for objective reporting can be derived. That is why one-sided, party-wide reporting is permissible. "

Individual newspapers or broadcasters consciously represent certain positions. For example, the Frankfurter Rundschau sees itself as left-wing liberal . The corresponding tendency ("coloring") of the reporting is not manipulation, but an expression of the freedom of expression of the editorial office or the publisher (see also protection against tendencies ).

The weighting of information can also be a ( subtle and therefore effective) instrument of manipulation. A high selection can, for example, distort the position of an “opponent” for a straw man argument or for “ demonization ”. It is also possible to divert attention from significant events by reporting on other topics in greater detail or by exaggerating their importance.

The role of language

The use of a word with a positive or negative connotation ( meliorative or pejorative ) in place of its neutral synonym is suitable for influencing the reader. If issues are controversial, this is usually reflected in the fact that the parties use different terms to refer to the same facts (for example " flight and expulsion " (customary wording in Germany) and " resettlement " (wording customary in Poland)). Here, too, the use of the terminology of a party is easily perceived as partisan or manipulative.

Translations from other languages pose a problem. The translator has the opportunity to manipulate this by not translating literally and true to the original.

Language can also appear as a political factor in the mass media, especially in those cases where a society is characterized by a multitude of languages. The choice of language in the mass media can most likely represent manipulation in the sense of the group that masters this language. Those who speak differently are, however, excluded from journalistic participation. Due to the worldwide spread of the English language as a lingua franca, the US and English-language media are often criticized from the outset as a journalistic - and thus manipulative - superiority.

Numerous media theorists concerned with language and manipulation point to the media in the United States , a country where English was spoken by the vast majority. Some argue that a standard language is far from creating national uniformity; there were still great differences expressed in the mass media.

The role of the visual

In addition to the selection, the placement and the choice of words, non-linguistically conveyed information, primarily the illustration through photos, tables, graphics or the size, the placement and choice of color or the font play an important role.

Conceivable manipulators

Journalists

The reporting is primarily done by the journalist himself. The political positions, financial dependencies and career relationships of a journalist can lead to amalgamations, which often result in tendentious reporting. Media manipulation is a distortion - contrary to journalistic ethics or media ethics - instead of a journalist's perspective or article due to the chronicler's obligation.

Publishers and owners

The owners of the media determine the journalistic orientation of the media ( tendency protection ) and can thus manipulate the media. For example, if an issue affects the owner's business interests, it can lead to biased reporting.

The factors that can lead to a manipulated presentation by media entrepreneurs include ownership of the news source, the choice of employees, or the targeting of a specific audience . The space or the transmission time for reports as well as the necessary deadlines can lead to incomplete or actual or apparently manipulated reports.

Customers or advertising industry

On the other hand, there is manipulation as arbitrary external influence on journalistic events. The pressure from the advertising industry is primarily mentioned here . Influence by parties, associations and other interest groups (“ lobbyism ”) is also conceivable.

This pressure can also be exerted retrospectively through sanctions. A well-known case in Germany was the cancellation of Aldi advertising in the "Süddeutsche Zeitung" after it had reported critically in 2004 about working conditions at Aldi.

A study by Helmut Volpers on behalf of the State Media Authority of North Rhine-Westphalia shows an increased mix of PR and editorial reporting in journalistic practice. Here, contributions from PR agencies are disguised and introduced as contributions from the medium. Barbara Baerns is a pioneer in this field of research .

Measures against manipulation

There are a number of measures against possible manipulation of the media:

Media commitment

Media manipulation is contrary to the journalist's professional ethics. In many countries there are codes of honor of the journalists' associations (for example in Germany: press code , in Austria: code of honor for the Austrian press ), in which regulations have been made to prevent media manipulation.

Legal regulations to ensure balance

In Germany there is public broadcasting , the organization of which, according to the broadcasting rulings of the Federal Constitutional Court, must ensure an “ internal plurality ” of the reports broadcast. The public service broadcaster ARD in Germany has a program advisory board, which has the advisory task of dealing critically with the program offerings internally on behalf of society. Was criticized z. In 2014, for example, in the opinion of the Advisory Board, reporting on the conflict in Ukraine was often too superficial and partisan without essential background information.

Some countries have laws to enforce balance in state media. Radio Canada's CBC and SRC have been under the Broadcasting Act since 1991 . This law stipulates, among other things:

Canadian Broadcasting must (i) provide a diverse and comprehensive program of representative information, education and entertainment to listeners of all ages, genders, interests and tastes; (...) (iv) provide the public with an adequate opportunity to express different views .

Diversity of opinion and competition

The most effective protection against media manipulation is the variety of media coverage. Therefore, the prevention of media concentration (for the diversity of competing media) and the possibility of creating a counter-public is an essential means of countering manipulation.

Disclosure of ownership and dependencies (transparency)

Tampering can also be avoided by disclosing the connections that could cause a conflict of interest, for example when a news agency reports on matters relevant to itself or about their owners. Often such a publication concerns shares or capital. As a result, commentators on stock issues are often asked to publicize a possible partnership in the company or its competitors.

The state of Hesse, for example, obliges the media to indicate majority owners in the imprint . The reason for this was the takeover of Frankfurter Rundschau by the SPD holding DDVG .

additional

Ways of avoiding manipulation are sought in the method of “ controversy ” ( point / counterpoint ) or “discussion at the round table”, a discussion format in which representatives of conflicting views defend their views against one another. This method theoretically allows all relevant different positions to be presented in the media. Nevertheless, broadcast managers, editors and moderators have the power to make a selection of the guests, to ask them more or less pleasant questions and to put their remarks in the right light or to comment on them. Without a good instinct for the moderator or editor for the above facts, a format that presents disputes in the media can be accused of creating the impression that the views presented have the same validity (also called " imbalance "). This can occur with taboo topics or when a discussion partner makes assertions that can easily be proven to be unfounded.

Mark Halperin , political director of ABC News , showed such an imbalance . In an internal mail, he forbade reporters to “use artificial influence. ... because George W. Bush and John Kerry are 'equally' responsible to the public. " The criticism of the Bush supporters is only aimed at achieving the election victory" through ... new attempts to destroy Kerry ". When the Drudge Report published this order, numerous Bush supporters saw here of all evidence that Halperin was manipulating the ABC against Bush in favor of Kerry by trying to stave off the manipulative attempts of the journalists.

In some cases where tampering is evident, a news agency may fire or transfer staff.

Research and theory of media manipulation

Research into media manipulation takes place in journalism training at universities (together with media , culture and peace research ) and by independent observation groups from different parts of the political spectrum. In the USA , numerous studies concentrate on the statements made by conservative - liberal politicians in the media. Others examine international differences in reporting, as well as the manipulation of reports on certain issues such as social class or development policy.

The Glasgow Media Group analyzed television and newspaper reports in the UK in Bad News Studies (Eldridge, 2000). Using content analysis , interviews and observational participation, they found out, among other things, that reports were manipulated against trade unions in which they were held responsible for the breach of collective agreements and the high inflation. Martin Harrison ( TV News: Who Manipulates?, 1985) criticized the methods of the Glasgow Media Group and argued that the GMG examines the manipulation selectively and presents its own prejudices manipulated as a result (Street 2001, p. 31).

Herman and Chomsky (1988) created the theory of the propaganda model , according to which a systematic manipulation of the media arises from the economic structure of the country. According to this theory, the media ownership of large companies decides on the formation of opinion, the advertising financing and the takeover of official government sources. These are able, for example, to discredit independent media through anti-communist ideology and manipulate the general public in the interests of companies.

Conceivable goals of media manipulation

Types of manipulation

  • geopolitical manipulation.
  • Ethnic or racial manipulation, including racism , nationalism and regionalism .
  • Manipulation by companies , including advertising and public relations - reporting on political campaigns in the interests of business, reporting in the interests of media owners.
  • Class manipulation, both the manipulation that favors a particular social class and the manipulation that ignores a division of society into social classes.
  • Political manipulation, including manipulation for or against a specific political party or candidate.
  • Religious manipulation, including manipulation in which one religious point of view is placed over another.
  • Scandalization that builds up something extraordinary compared to the normal. This includes the practice of overemphasizing, distorting or fabricating special messages for commercial reasons.
  • Disinformation that deliberately spreads false, one-sided or distorted information.
  • Agitation and propaganda (for example during the cold war ).
  • The journalistic lie that, if selected, is believed because it is often printed as headlines . Any revocations are placed in such a way that they are hardly noticed.
  • Court reporting or announcement journalism: the dissociated and uncritical publication of information in the interest of politicians, parties or institutions.
  • Political correctness , the use and alleged dominance of "politically correct" language as censorship and restriction of freedom of speech.

National, cultural and ethnic viewpoints

Numerous news agencies tend to report that is adapted to the geographical, ethnic and national expectations of the population.

Western media is often accused by the vast majority of the world ( Eastern Europe , Asia , Africa and the Middle East ) for its pro-Western stance on a wide range of political, cultural and economic issues.

In America, during the civil rights movement, southerners accused the media of manipulating whites. Film and television allegedly manipulated in favor of “racial mixing”; numerous television programs and series with ethnically mixed casts such as I Spy or Star Trek were not broadcast by the stations of the south.

Media manipulation in the sense of a religion is obvious in those countries where the state and the media are ruled by an official religion. Here manipulation against other faiths can clearly and with all consequences.

Even in countries with religious freedom and free press, the predominant religion goes to great lengths to gain influence over the media. In the predominantly Christian nations, journalists tend to report on activities relating to Christianity and the exclusion of other faiths.

But the opposite can also be the case. In atheist countries, the anti-religious media propaganda had an impact, as in numerous countries of the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.

With a different motivation, some of today's media, out of their own interest, withhold reporting on any religious affairs in order not to give the appearance of preferring one religious denomination over the other.

The latter type of manipulation is often seen in coverage of new religious movements. It often happens that the only point of view that is conveyed to the public about a new religious movement , controversial group or cult is portrayed negatively and illustrated by media reports of scandals. For example, most new or minority religions only receive media attention when something scandalous can be reported, for example a mass suicide by a sect or illegal machinations by the leadership of a religious movement.

According to the Encyclopedia of Social Work (19th edition), the news media plays a crucial role in the public acceptance of cults. According to some studies, visual representation gives the media the power to manipulate recipients into perceiving certain new cults as problematic, controversial, or threatening (Beckford, 1985; Richardson, Best, & Bromley, 1991; Victor, 1993). The analysis showed that media reports on cults were largely due to police officers or "cult experts" who classified the respective cultic practice as dangerous and destructive, which were often expanded with horrifying stories of ritual torture , sexual abuse , brainwashing and so on.

Other influences

Media manipulation is not fundamentally political. News media essentially seek success with a specific audience. Many people are more interested in local reporting with a private or regional reference such as photos of school enrollment, a wedding celebration, a prominent local size, a reception, a traffic accident or other glamorous or shocking reports.

The death of millions of people in an ethnic conflict in Africa or Asia, for example, finds a narrow marginal mention in the regional media, while the shooting of five members of a grammar school receives months of in-depth and multifaceted analysis. The reason for this type of manipulation is to be found in the pursuit of media audience success. Producers and publishers offer what they think the masses are most interested in (see also agenda setting ).

Manipulation of the media

The term “media manipulation” can also be understood to describe an attempt to manipulate the media with the aim of achieving or preventing specific reporting.

The idea behind it is: Influential bodies (e.g. certain governments or corporations) exercise their power over the media in their or other countries with both overt and hidden censorship . On the other hand, some journalists or editors voluntarily restrict the presentation of problematic facts out of fear of negative consequences ( self-censorship : “scissors in the head”).

Media directly controlled by the government

This manipulation can be seen in states with state-controlled media and with no or very limited freedom of the press, such as in the Third Reich , the GDR or today's China and Russia, as well as in dictatorships in general .

So the was conformist media in the Third Reich under the " press conferences of the national government" given not only the opinion of the government, but also equal to the form of presentation, for example, concerning disclosure of the comments of the Western powers towards accession of Spain to the Anti-Comintern Pact , "Not as Main presentation of the papers come out… do not attach too much importance… leave out comments about the Italian volunteers in Spain. ”As a result of these far-reaching manipulations, the regime was able to manipulate large parts of the population until they surrendered.

From 1976 to the end of the 1980s, third world countries tried to break the dominance of the Western press in their countries under the heading of the “New World Information Order ”. At a symposium of the non-aligned countries in 1976 it was declared: "Every developing country has the right to exercise full sovereignty over information". In order to reduce the imbalance, reporting on one's own positions was enforced in some countries by abolishing the freedom of the press, whereby the project was exploited to protect the existing government or certain interest groups. Since 1991 the media in many developing countries have become more independent of the state, but journalists are often persecuted if they research powerful economic interests and organized crime.

Media indirectly directed by the government

The government can exert a considerable influence on media coverage even without its own state media and direct PR requirements. This happened, for example, in many Latin American military dictatorships in the 20th century, where government-friendly private media companies were promoted, but other media were hindered, among other things by bans. In Argentina , during the military dictatorship (1976 to 1983) in 1980, the laws were changed and, among other things, it was forbidden to allocate radio and television frequencies to non-profit organizations. In the mass media, among other things, systematic torture and the disappearance of tens of thousands of opposition members ( see: Desaparecidos ) were kept silent across the board and propaganda reports were distributed instead. The successive murder of around 100 journalists during the dictatorship also went unreported.

There is often increased influence, including steering, in war zones, as journalists can easily be arrested on “grounds of suspicion” and the media therefore often rely on information from official press conferences. In recent years, the rules for war correspondents have also been increasingly expanded and tightened. The head of the Associated Press news agency Tom Curley, for example, criticized the increasing pressure of the US military on independent reporters in war zones and the general increase in the influence of the United States Department of Defense on the media . The Pentagon has expanded its "Influence Operations" budget by 63 percent since 2003; in 2008 it was $ 4.7 billion for 27,000 employees.

Manipulation through networks and the concept of "social capital"

This article or paragraph presents the situation in Germany . Help us to describe the situation in other countries.

Research approach, theses and results of the investigation by Krüger

In Uwe Krüger's dissertation on the influence of the elites on German journalists and the media, a theoretical model is developed that explains media behavior with the help of pressure groups and social networks and that predicts that leading media more or less reflect the current discourse of the elites, but not its limits exceed it and not critically question its premises.

Krüger's initial thesis is “that a consensually united elite can rule against the interests of a large part of the population on important issues (war and peace, macroeconomic order) and that journalistic elites might be too deeply involved in the elite milieu to still act as advocates of the public interest to have a critical-controlling effect. "

In the empirical part, his social network analysis initially focuses on the social environment of 219 leading editors in leading German media. One in three had informal contacts with political and business elites; Four foreign policy journalists, Stefan Kornelius , Klaus-Dieter Frankenberger , Michael Stürmer and Josef Joffe , have dense networks in the US and NATO-affine elite milieu. Other journalists analyzed are Kai Diekmann (picture), Peter Frey and Claus Kleber (ZDF) and Matthias Naß (ZEIT).

A subsequent frame analysis asks to what extent the output of these four journalists in the controversial questions of the definition of security (extended security concept) and Afghanistan deployment of the Bundeswehr is in line with the identified reference groups. Finally, the reports on the Munich Security Conference and its opponents in five daily newspapers are analyzed for content . She comes to the conclusion that the leading media close to the elite, FAZ, Welt and Süddeutsche, provide a detailed account of the elite discourse taking place at the security conference, but marginalize and delegitimize the protests and the counter-event, the Munich Peace Conference.

“The direct connections to the economy, more precisely the consultancy work of editors-in-chief and publishers for profit-oriented corporations: Josef Joffe (Zeit) as advisory board member of HypoVereinsbank and Stefan Aust (Spiegel) and Helmut Markwort (focus) as advisory board members of Deutsche Telekom AG appear to be highly problematic .

Second, the involvement of journalists in an organization of the federal government must be viewed critically, namely Klaus-Dieter Frankenberger (FAZ), Stefan Kornelius (SZ) and Peter Frey (ZDF) as advisors of the Federal Academy for Security Policy , a think tank in the business area of ​​the Federal Ministry of Defense .

According to the Academy's statutes, the Advisory Board advises the Board of Trustees, which in turn consists of the Federal Chancellor and the Federal Ministers of Defense, Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Justice, Economy and Development Aid. The three journalists thus undertook to advise the federal government that they are actually supposed to criticize and control as public lawyers. " (P. 148) "

Regarding the question of what kind of influence the elites exert on journalists, Krüger suspects that “journalists with values ​​and opinions that are compatible with elites (have) a higher chance of gaining access to the highest circles, and their involvement in the elite milieu increases the conformity over time. This also means that journalists with opinions that are compatible with the elite have better chances of making a career, because they can score points in their own company and in the industry with exclusive information and high-ranking interview partners. ”Krüger argues with Pierre Bourdieu's concept of social capital .

Manipulation of the media in Germany by the DB

In Germany in 2009 a case of manipulation by the Deutsche Bahn AG caused a sensation, which the opinion-making itself admitted. Rüdiger Grube , Hartmut Mehdorn's successor at DB, said in 2009: "In 2007, according to Deutsche Bahn, 1.3 million euros were spent on pre-produced media articles, blog and forum articles, letters to the editor and opinion polls" .

reception

This article or paragraph presents the situation in Germany . Help us to describe the situation in other countries.

Global corruption barometer

Transparency International publishes a so-called global corruption barometer at irregular intervals . In 2013, 54 percent of those surveyed in Germany considered the media to be corrupt or very corrupt. On a scale from 1 (not at all corrupt) to 5 (highly corrupt), the media got a value of 3.6. Only the private sector (3.7) and political parties (3.8) performed worse . In 2010 the rating of the media in Germany was still 3.0.

Survey

According to a representative survey carried out by YouGov for Zeit Online , 47 percent of those surveyed in December 2014 had the impression that the media in Germany reported one-sidedly and were directed by politics. Only 40 percent considered the reporting to be objective and independent.

At the beginning of the same month, a survey by Infratest dimap on behalf of the television program Zapp found that 69 percent of the eligible population in Germany have little or no trust in the media. Only 29 percent expressed great or very great confidence.

Both surveys are in the context of the media coverage of the Ukraine conflict .

An Emnid survey in 2016 showed that only 34 percent of those surveyed consider reporting in the German news media to be really independent.

While these surveys only reflect the perceived impression of the audience, influence studies examine the extent to which an influence can actually be measured.

history

The political manipulability of the mass media is a property that they have been burdened with since the invention of the printing press . The high cost of the earlier printing equipment initially limited media production. Publishers often served the interests of large or powerful social groups .

John Milton's Areopagitica pamphlet , a speech for the freedom of unlicensed printing , published in 1644, was one of the first publications for the freedom of the press .

In the 19th century, journalists recognized the principle of impartial reporting as an essential part of journalistic ethics . This met with the rise of journalism as a social power factor together and is still valid today, with conscientious and to objectivity tried journalists are not taken into allegations of manipulation.

Like the press, the radio media (radio and television) served from the beginning as a propaganda tool , a tendency that is reflected in the original control of national governments over the entire spectrum of broadcasts . Although a process of media regulation has placed the majority of western broadcasting media in private hands, there is still a strong government presence or a government monopoly over the broadcasting media in certain countries around the world. On the other hand, the privatization of the media often leads to concentration in the hands of a few media groups , which in turn leads to certain forms of media manipulation.

In 1798, the United States passed the Alien and Sedition Acts , a ban on the publication of "false, scandalous, or malicious reports" against the government, including any public opposition to any law or presidential act, in the press (in effect until 1801).

During the American Civil War , President Abraham Lincoln accused the front-line press of manipulation in favor of the South and ordered numerous newspapers to be banned.

With the fake attack of alleged Poles on the German station Gleiwitz in 1939, Germany's entry into the Second World War and the attack on Poland was justified by propaganda .

Hitler accused the press of Marxist manipulation and was applauded by the Nazi- supporting media in England and the USA. During the Second World War, politicians on the German side claimed that the international media was controlled by Jews . Reports of German mistreatment of the Jews were manipulated and lacked any basis. Hollywood has been described as a hotbed of Jewish manipulation and films like Charlie Chaplin's “ The Great Dictator ” served as evidence of this.

The Tonkin incident of 1964, manipulated by the media , provided the US government with an excuse to enter the Vietnam War . During the war, Vice President Spiro Agnew, for his part, accused the press of anti-American manipulation.

In 1968, an inflated media call for help from (quote from the Tass news agency ) “Personalities of the party and the state of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic to the Soviet Union” offered the propagandistic justification for the invasion of troops from the Soviet Union , Poland , Hungary and Bulgaria into the CSSR. In reality, the Communist Party in the CSSR largely backed the overthrown government.

In the 1980s, the South African government accused the press of manipulating the government and initiated censorship measures. In 1989 the government banned the New Nation newspaper for three months for publishing anti- apartheid propaganda. Other newspapers - largely censored - published the censored blackened sections as such to demonstrate the extent of government censorship.

Manipulations have a lasting effect when they move emotionally . In 1990, the incubator lie moved the Americans to agree to the entry into the Second Gulf War . Poignant images allegedly floating in Kuwaiti - Iraqi waters of oil-smeared cormorants later turned out to be photos of the Exxon Valdez disaster.

In November 2005, George W. Bush admitted that the alleged evidence of the existence of weapons of mass destruction used as a reason for the war in Iraq was unfounded. He avoided the word manipulation.

Not all manipulation charges are political. Author Martin Gardner accused the entertainment media of pseudoscientific manipulation. He claimed that television programs like The X-Files - The X Files promoted the superstition .

See also

literature

  • Uwe Krüger : Power of opinion. The Influence of Elites on Leading Media and Alpha Journalists - A Critical Network Analysis. Cologne 2013.
  • Garth S. Jowett, Victoria O'Donnell: Propaganda and Persuasion, Thousand Oaks , CA: SAGE Publications , 1999. ISBN 0-7619-1147-2 .
  • Edward S. Herman, Noam Chomsky: Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media , New York: Pantheon Books , 1988.
  • Albrecht Müller : Opinion making. How business, politics and the media try to break our thinking. Knaur TB, 2009, ISBN 978-3-426-78160-9 .
  • Rainer Strzolka: The Internet as a World Library. Search engines and their importance for the acquisition of knowledge - a contribution to the censorship discussion. Simon-Verlag, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-940862-00-6 .
  • Tabea Jerrentrup: Media Power. Media effects related to perception, society, communication and the individual. Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-86553-135-0 .
  • Peter Forster: The Truth Sold - How the media and the powerful lead us astray. Verlag Huber, Frauenfeld 2005, ISBN 3-7193-1338-7 .
  • Stephanie Gutmann: The Other War: Israelis, Palestinians and the struggle over media sovereignty. ISBN 1-893554-94-5 . (English 2005, The Other War: Israelis, Palestinians and the Struggle for Media Supremacy)
  • Bernard Goldberg (CBS reporter): Arrogance. Rescuing America From the Media Elite. Warner Books, New York 2003, ISBN 0-446-53191-X .
  • Noam Chomsky : Media Control. Of power and the media. Europa-Verlag, 2003, ISBN 3-203-76015-0 .
  • Malte Olschewski : From the Karawanken to Kosovo - The Secret History of the Wars in Yugoslavia. Braumüller, Vienna 2000, ISBN 3-7003-1328-4 .
  • J. Eldridge: The Glasgow Media Group's Contribution to the Study of Television and Print Journalism. In: Journalism Studies. 2000, 1 (1), pp. 113-127.
  • Niklas Luhmann : The reality of the mass media. 2nd, expanded edition. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1996.
  • Jefferson, M. Media bias. In: R. Goodin, A. Reeve (Eds.): Liberal neutrality . Routledge, London 1989, pp. 130-155.
  • K. Feld Newton: Media bias. In: R. Goodin, A. Reeve (Eds.): Liberal neutrality . Routledge, London 1989, pp. 130-155.
  • E. Herman, N. Chomsky: Manufacturing Consent. The Political Economy of the Mass Media. Pantheon, New York 1988.
  • M. Harrison: TV News: Who Is Rigging? Politicy Journals, London 1985.
  • Peter Hahne : The power of manipulation. About people, media and opinion makers. Hänssler , Neuhausen-Stuttgart 1984. ISBN 3-7751-0895-5 (new editions: 2001. ISBN 978-3-77510-895-9 ; 2005. ISBN 978-3-77513-814-7 ).
  • Vance Packard : The Great Temptation. The intervention in body and soul. (The People Shapers). Ullstein Verlag, Frankfurt 1979, ISBN 3-548-34016-4 .

Web links

swell

  1. ^ Manfred Steffens: The business with the message. Munich 1971, p. 9 ff.
  2. ^ Niklas Luhmann: Changes in the system of social communication and the mass media. In: Oskar Schatz (ed.): The electronic revolution. Graz 1975, p. 21.
  3. ^ Winfried Schulz: The construction of reality in the news media. Munich 1976, ISBN 3-495-47331-9 , page 27
  4. ^ Günter Wallraff: The lead story. Cologne 1977, ISBN 3-462-01257-6 , p. 9.
  5. ↑ Netzeitung: Aldi boycotts “Süddeutsche Zeitung” ( Memento of May 8, 2004 in the Internet Archive ), April 18, 2004.
  6. ^ Frontal21: Purchased articles - PR sent as information ( memento from September 2, 2014 in the Internet Archive ), broadcast from July 17, 2007.
  7. ↑ What is the ARD program advisory board ? ( Memento from March 24, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  8. ↑ Malte Daniljuk: Ukraine conflict: ARD program advisory board confirms audience criticism. In: Telepolis. heise.de, September 18, 2014, accessed on September 19, 2014 .
  9. ↑ Joachim Huber: ARD criticizes ARD. tagesspiegel.de, September 18, 2014, accessed on September 19, 2014 .
  10. ^ Broadcasting Act, 1991. In: Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. Retrieved September 8, 2009 .
  11. ↑ cf. Social consequences of media concentration - (publication by the Federal Agency for Civic Education 2004)
  12. ^ Hendrik Polland: Jihad, election campaign or geopolitics? (No longer available online.) Zenith Online, December 14, 2014, archived from the original on April 1, 2016 ; Retrieved April 1, 2016 .
  13. ↑ Oliver Müser: USA-Russia conflict: sovereignty struggle for the opinion of others. Voice of Russia, June 20, 2013, accessed April 1, 2016 .
  14. ^ Press conference of the Reich Government, quoted from Fritz Singer : Politics of Deceptions. Vienna, 1975, ISBN 3-203-50542-8 , p. 323.
  15. ↑ Overview article: New World Information Order , by Renate Wilke-Launer, in: Journal for ecumenical encounter and international cooperation.
  16. ↑ Deutschlandradio Feature: Mediale Kreuzzüge , March 17, 2009
  17. ↑ Huffington Post: AP CEO: Bush Turned Military Into Propaganda Machine ( March 10, 2016 memento on the Internet Archive ), February 6, 2009.
  18. ↑ 27,000 PR consultants polish the image of the USA
  19. ↑ Uwe Krüger: Power of opinion. The Influence of Elites on Leading Media and Alpha Journalists - A Critical Network Analysis . Cologne 2013.
  20. ↑ Cover text of the book edition.
  21. ↑ The interweaving of leading media, politics and business , on isw-muenchen.de, accessed on January 13, 2019
  22. ↑ Journalism research: "Completely in line with the elites" , on heise.de
  23. ↑ Editorial writers and power elites , on heise.de
  24. ^ Bahn releases those responsible for covert opinion-making. Retrieved January 13, 2019 .
  25. ↑ Transparency International: The majority of Germans consider the media to be corrupt. In: zeit.de. Zeit Online, July 9, 2013, accessed January 30, 2015 .
  26. ↑ Global Corruption Barometer 2013 - National results. In: transparency.org. Transparency International, accessed January 30, 2015 .
  27. ↑ Global Corruption Barometer 2013. For the first time, media are perceived as more corrupt than public administration and parliament. (No longer available online.) In: transparency.de. ransparency International Deutschland eV, July 9, 2013, archived from the original on August 23, 2015 ; Retrieved January 30, 2015 (press release).
  28. ↑ Survey: Almost every second person distrusts the media. In: zeit.de. Zeit Online, December 22, 2014, accessed January 30, 2015 .
  29. ^ Annette Leiterer: ZAPP Study: Trust in the media has decreased. In: ndr.de. Norddeutscher Rundfunk, accessed January 30, 2015 .
  30. ↑ Study: Germans consider news media to be controlled. In: Zeit Online. May 2, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2016 .
  31. ↑ z. B. in European Journalism Observatory -Master thesis on the influence of PR on daily newspapers in Ticino or the diploma thesis by Tobias Höhn
  32. ^ Documents from the National Security Archives: The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 40 Years Later. August 2004.
  33. ↑ Recording of the conversation between Willy Brandt and Georges Pompidou (June 21, 1973)
  34. ↑ picture cormorant
  35. ↑ America Service (December 14, 2005): Iraqi elections are a turning point for democracy . Retrieved January 13, 2020 .
  36. ↑ Reading sample: Chapter 6 (PDF; 140 kB)