Fake news

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

As Fake News (also fake -News or Fakenews ; English fake news [ fɛɪ̯kˌnjuːz ]) pretended to be spread manipulative, message , made up, mainly in the Internet , especially social networks and other social media , some viral spread. The Spelling Dude , which included the term in its 27th edition in 2017, defines it as " colloquial for false reports in the media and on the Internet, especially in social media with manipulative intent ". Fake news has also increasingly become a political catchphrase and battle slogan .

Classification and concept

For Zeit journalist Karoline Kuhla, fake news are “[in] the style of real news, deliberately spread untruths that are mostly spread via social media.” In a second meaning, however, the term is used as “an insulting expression for unpleasant reporting or media, similar to the German reputation " Lügenpresse " used. Kuhla stated, “Most of the creators and distributors of fake news have political goals. They have recognized that topics that are discussed very emotionally are particularly suitable for creating a mood. ”She referred to articles from the Süddeutsche Zeitung and from Die Zeit .

Markus Appel (2019) records the following core characteristics of fake news: A statement or the representation of an event is presented in the form of a journalistic article, although it does not match the facts, but was deliberately invented or falsified for political or economic gain.

According to netzpolitik.org, fake news is “deliberately misrepresented news with the aim of manipulating the public for certain political and / or commercial goals”, also a “pattern of action of the communication and media guerrilla ”, with which journalists are deliberately misled into reporting should. One example is the “ Dow Chemical Hack” by The Yes Men in 2004. The authors of the site are also concerned with “authoritarian systems” that “use the debate about fake news to suppress news they don't like . The debate harbors great dangers for freedom of expression and freedom of the press and can lead to censorship. "

The British newspaper The Guardian describes fake news in the strictest sense as false reports that resemble credible journalism, but are completely fictitious in order to deceive its readers and thus to attract attention, dissemination and advertising income for its authors. In a broader sense, the Internet in particular invites you to spread false truths that are not completely wrong, but twisted and taken out of context; this also includes clickbaiting . The author therefore advises skepticism and concentration on reliable sources of information. Even postings meant to be satirical , such as The Onion , would be accepted as true by some readers and could in this sense also be viewed as a kind of fake news.

The New Responsibility Foundation , which examined the phenomenon in the 2017 federal election campaign in Germany, understands fake news primarily as disinformation , "as the dissemination of false or misleading information with the intention of harming a person, an organization or an institution." differentiates between invented, manipulated and misinterpreted content; Satire, journalistic errors and the abuse of fake news as a political battlefield are not included. "With social media being much less important as a source of news, a far less polarized political landscape, and much greater trust in traditional media offerings, Germany seems less vulnerable than the USA."

This is also confirmed by the long-term study media trust at the Institute for Journalism at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz in January 2018. The study comes to the conclusion that the “lying press hysteria” in Germany is subsiding: “As before, public service broadcasting and the Daily press the trust of about two thirds of the population. Only five percent are generally suspicious of them. The Internet, on the other hand, has experienced a real loss of confidence: Only ten percent of citizens generally consider Internet offers to be trustworthy - that is a decrease of 14 percentage points. The majority are apparently aware that on the Internet, which as a hybrid medium unites very different offers, special care and attention is required as to whether a source is reliable. Only around two to three percent consider news in the social networks to be trustworthy. ”The reason for the latter is that large majorities of two thirds to three quarters of Germans see fake news and hateful comments as a real danger to society.

Andre Wolf, founder of the Austrian association to educate people about Internet abuse , Mimikama , sees in an interview with n-tv "fake news as websites that look like normal news sites, but freely invent their stories for commercial reasons". In the American election campaign in 2016, the authors were “mainly about money”, that is, about generating advertising income via Facebook and Google Adsense ; the political effect that arises from “the fact that the fabricated message takes up real fears or an actually existing anger” was “completely irrelevant” to them. In the German-speaking area there are “more ideological messages that contain a core truth, but which are manipulative or incorrect”. “The Internet and social networks have ... made fake news more widespread. And that of course made them more dangerous ”.

The phrase fake news is closely related to terms like hoax or scam . In April 2017, Facebook's security department presented a working paper that distinguishes four different forms of information misuse under the heading of fake news :

  • Information (or Influence) Operations : Activities of governments or non-governmental organizations with the aim of controlling domestic or foreign political sentiments.
  • False News : Messages that purport to be correct but deliberately convey misinformation in order to evoke emotions, attract attention, or deceive.
  • False Amplifiers : the coordinated activity of forged and falsified online accounts with the intention of manipulating political discussions
  • Disinformation : Incorrect or manipulated information and / or content that is intentionally distributed. This can include false news or more subtle methods such as false flag operations , injecting false quotes or narratives into ignorant distributors, or deliberately amplifying misleading information.

At the beginning of 2017, the phrase Fake News was voted Anglicism of the year 2016 by the “Jury of the Action Anglicism of the Year” on the grounds:

“As early as the end of the 19th century, the word fake news was used to describe conscious false reports in newspapers. However, it only became a permanent expression from the year 2000, especially for naming satirical news magazines such as The Daily Show or The Onion. With the increasing role of social media, the word became the term used to refer to fabricated messages (such as celebrity obituaries) designed to lure people to certain websites or mislead them for entertainment. In this usage, it was borrowed into German from 2014, but initially could not hold its own against established words such as hoax (message). The breakthrough in common linguistic usage did not occur until November 2016 in connection with a shift in meaning towards politically motivated false reports, which - allegedly - brought the candidate Donald Trump to victory in the presidential election campaign in the USA. […] What convinced the jury about Fake News, in addition to its overwhelming and sustained public presence, was that it fills a gap in German vocabulary that cannot easily be closed without the word fake . [...].] In contrast to false (or false in English ), the adjective fake denotes conscious replicas of things made with the intention of deceiving [...]. "

- Jury of the Anglicism of the Year Action

origin

Excerpt from FB Opper: The fin de siècle newspaper proprietor , caricature, Puck Magazin , March 7, 1894: Eager reporters add “Humbug news, Fake news, Cheap sensation”.

According to the editors of Webster's Dictionary , the origins of the term fake news date back to at least 1890. An example of this on the publisher's website is the headline Secretary Brunnell Declares Fake News About His People is Being Telegraphed Over the Country.

Spread and causes

At the end of April 2017, Facebook Inc. published a “ whitepaper ” in which it states that its platform has been used for targeted disinformation campaigns, e.g. B. in the US presidential election 2015/16 or in the election campaign for the presidential election in France 2017 .

According to a study published in mid-June 2017 by the Internet security company Trend Micro , fake news campaigns that influence public opinion and are capable of destroying trust in institutions can be ordered from “service providers” in the “ darknet ”: influencing the election cost according to examples from Chinese, English-speaking or Russian providers up to 400,000 US dollars, provocation of protests up to 200,000, discrediting a journalist, for example, up to 50,000.

In the case of Russian propaganda , Russia's political goal in liberal countries is to “shake the citizens' trust in the security of the country” ( Gerasimov doctrine ) and thereby “weaken democracy”. According to the opinion of the NZZ , “the Russian trolls (before the US midterms 2018) apparently no longer concentrated on producing fake news, but increasingly on disseminating content from right-wing or left-wing extremist sites as far as possible - with the intention of to intensify social polarization. "

Social bots

“ Social bots ”, computer programs that have been used more and more in social networks in recent years , are a crucial aid in spreading fake news.

So far, there are only a limited number of examples of the success or influence of social bots in the scientific literature and the press. Nevertheless, there are prominent examples in which they had an influence on opinion on the Internet: the protest movement in Ukraine in 2013/014 , the course of the Brexit vote in Great Britain in 2016 and the influence on the 2016 US presidential election . It has been proven that 20% of the tweets on the Twitter platform during the US presidential campaign were created by social bots. In the Ukraine example, an average of around 60,000 tweets were shared daily by 15,000 bots.

Social media as sources of political information

In the social networks to disseminate fake news particularly well, as have developed the former in the digital world to a preferred political information source. This is initially due to lower costs, since the producer of the fake news does not have to operate their own server for this . The very limited storage space available for the use of “ newsfeeds ” on smartphones and tablets increases the readability and thus the attractiveness of the texts on offer, which must be clearly worded and which can be accessed practically at any time. On the other hand, this fact also prevents the passing on of background knowledge, which is often necessary, and thus the verification of its truthfulness. In a study published in Science in 2018 , more than 4.5 million tweets made available by Twitter from around 3 million users on around 126 thousand different messages from the 7 topics of politics, modern sagas , business, terrorism, science, Entertainment and natural disasters evaluated over a period of 11 years. The scientists come to the conclusion that false, mainly political information spreads on Twitter with a much greater range and speed than true information. Apparently , bots do not play a significant role in the transfer, but rather inexperienced users who are impressed by the news of the false reports .

Behavioral economic explanation

The following list is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.
Only the existence of the cognitive distortions is proven, while the connection to "fake news" is not evident from the evidence everywhere (in particular the evidence "Behavioral Economics - Springer" -> unsuitable evidence)

The increasing spread of fake news, especially in social networks, follows behavioral economic patterns. A number of cognitive biases are known in psychological research that influence how recipients react to messages and information or process them:

  • People are specifically looking for information or opinions that support the perceived and stored (false) hypothesis ; this process by which individuals tend to accept only confirmatory information is also known as " confirmation error ".
  • According to the consistency bias , information that confirms one's own opinion is more credible than information that is in conflict with it.
  • The truth effect (Engl. Illusory Truth Effect ) states that information that was already seen several times, credible act as third party information, even if they seem implausible.
  • The availability heuristic describes how people assess a thesis without taking enough time to review it. Fake news is also more likely to be considered true if it is freshly anchored in the mind. In this context, the University of Passau carried out studies with regard to the third-person effect .

With these heuristic methods, fake news is anchored in the memory of predominantly uneducated people who travel in isolated groups of like-minded people whom they trust.

In the case of fake news, there is asymmetrical information because its producer is better informed than its recipient ( principal-agent problem ). The recipient is often not aware of the poor quality of the fake news, the producer is. “Real” news is also more complex to produce and convey than fake news; the latter is more likely to be written in simple language.

Several studies have also shown that the gullibility of people with regard to fake news depends on their intensity of analytical or reflective thinking.

Intra-individual risk factors

In a study by Guess et al. (2019) American test subjects who shared information from fake news websites on social networks were examined for various demographic and psychological variables. The results showed that politically these people could be more likely to belong to the conservative Republicans. No significant differences could be found with regard to gender, level of education and income. However, the study of age revealed significant differences: people aged 65 and older shared fake news on average seven times more often than people aged 18 to 29 years. This result remained significant even under statistical control of other influencing factors. From these findings, the authors concluded that older social media users in particular had insufficient skills in dealing with fake news, since their media consumption behavior, unlike younger users, was characterized by high-quality journalism for a longer period of time. The ability to critically reflect on media content might therefore have been promoted less strongly by the quality of the reporting than among younger users.

Negative social consequences

Since a functioning democracy depends on a well-informed population, spreading false information through fake news not only leads to people being misinformed, but can also have serious consequences for society as a whole. For example, For example, in the past the spread of misinformation about vaccination about parents not having their children vaccinated, which has led to a significant increase in preventable diseases. In addition to such direct consequences, there are other social risks. There is evidence that spreading misinformation leads some people to generally cease to believe in the existence of facts. This is especially true when the misinformation is spread along with conspiracy theories .

Sometimes fake news can directly lead to people being killed. In India, for example, false reports of child abductions resulted in several lynchings . In Iran, on the other hand, the spread of fake news led to a four-digit number of people suffering from methanol poisoning during the COVID-19 pandemic after hearing on social media that drinking methanol protects against the disease. Hundreds of people died of the poisoning, others became blind or suffered other health problems.

Economic damage from fake news

One example is the fall of the construction company share Vinci in 2016: the French company briefly lost 18% of its value. The reason was the fake press release that the group had to revise its balance sheets for 2015 and 2016 and that the chief financial officer was then fired. This notification turned out to be false in retrospect and led the stock exchange regulator to investigate the Autorité des marchés financiers (AMF).

Another example is the rapid rise in the share of the company Cynk in 2014: With the help of social networks and bots, the share price could be driven up; Another reason was the Trading - algorithms that around the company considered the rumors as relevant and then bought its shares. The stock rose to 200 times its original value, which resulted in the company being worth $ 6 billion in a very short time until the sale of the stock was suspended, which in turn led to losses for investors .

A false tweet about an alleged explosion in which Barack Obama should have been harmed caused a stock market loss of around 130 billion US dollars in 2013.

Countermeasures

Sign with a quote from Hans Joachim Friedrichs: "You can recognize a good journalist by the fact that he does not have something in common - not even with a good cause." (April 2020)

The European Union has set up as a result of the September 2015 East StratCom Task Force , an EU Commission working group for tracking and analyzing from Russia to Europe flowing disinformation Disinformation revue created and connected a corresponding website. The East StratCom Task Force identified 3,200 false positives in 20 months.

On March 12, 2018, the independent "Expert Group on Fake News and Disinformation" set up by the EU in January of that year, made up of 29 media and university representatives, presented a first report to the EU Commissioner responsible, Marija Gabriel . The chairwoman Madeleine de Cock Buning stated that due to a lack of discriminatory precision they no longer wanted to use the term "fake news", it was about deliberately spread false news and not about satire or errors, not even about censorship. Overall, a corresponding manipulation of the 2019 European elections should be prevented.

Founded in 1994, "Snopes" is the oldest US online service for detecting fake news. It now judges the term "fake news" to be useless, partly because of the inflationary use by Donald Trump.

Internet portals such as mimikama.at or politifact.com check corresponding statements or reports for their truthfulness on request or in their own research and subject them to " fact checks ". In Germany, ARD started in 2017 with its own portal called faktenfinder under the leadership of Patrick Gensing on the tagesschau.de domain, while Bayerische Rundfunk operates the faktenfuchs portal . Spiegel Online provides two checklists for identifying products from social bots and fake news .

Federal states in Germany provide their own information campaigns and learning units to promote media literacy among schoolchildren and adults. In Switzerland, the successor to traditional school television , the mySchool portal, provides teaching units. In Germany, the portal So geht Medien is maintained by the BR for the public broadcasters, along with the offer from the Federal Agency for Civic Education .

To correct rumors and false reports that are spread by smugglers with the intention of luring migrants to Germany (e.g. "Germany gives every refugee a house"), the Federal Government has been operating the RumorsAboutGermany.info website since October 23, 2017 in Arabic, French and English.

Social networks

There are efforts to prevent or flag fake news on social networks; in cooperation with the research network and the journalistic portal Correctiv z. B. Facebook flag corresponding messages in a test run in Germany.

Detection of fake news on Facebook

Since the companies themselves the veracity of content ( " Postings can not check") or may, it operates in the United States with companies and organizations that the Poynter International Fact-Checking Code of Principles (dt. " Poynter Code on international Facts -Check -Principles "), z. B. Snopes , Politifact , FactCheck.org and ABC News .

In April 2017, Facebook issued a press release on the subject of disinformation, in which specific indications are given as to how to identify fake news on the platform. Facebook names the three main areas in which it wants to tackle false news: fighting economic incentives, as most false news are financially motivated, developing new products to contain the spread of false news, and helping users make informed decisions when they encounter false reports.

State regulation in Germany and other European countries

There is a lot of discussion about the regulation of fake news at the moment. The legislature's leeway is quite extensive. The current regulation provides that civil law proceedings are only possible if individual persons are affected. This fact shows that there are currently major gaps in legal prosecution. However, the way of regulation is very difficult, since care must be taken that there is no censorship. In any case, freedom of expression must be protected.

Germany

In the spring of 2017, the federal government drafted the Network Enforcement Act (NetzDG), which deals with the improvement of legal enforcement in social networks.

Associations, publishers and politicians criticize the law against hate speech and fake news. For example, the Federal Association Bitkom and the German Association of Journalists complained that the causes of criminal agitation were disregarded and freedom of expression was restricted. Politicians noted that Facebook was not qualified to judge whether a contentious post was illegal.

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic installed a new defense center against fake news on January 1, 2017. The new center against terrorism and hybrid threats, CTHH for short, has around 20 employees. This center is part of the Ministry of the Interior and is not intended to be viewed as a secret service or used for the enforcement of laws. It is not used to spread propaganda and is intended to provide targeted information about fake news.

Hungary

With the emergency decision on the Covid 19 pandemic , a new provision against fake news came into the Hungarian penal code. The new Paragraph 337 makes it a punishable offense of up to three years in prison if someone disseminates “false or distorted facts” in front of a large number of people during a state of emergency in such a way that “spreads unrest” among a larger number of people. There is a risk of up to five years imprisonment if this is done in a manner that is likely to “prevent or thwart the success of the defense”. "This penal provision is appropriate and necessary to combat disinformation campaigns," said Justice Minister Judit Varga.

France

The spread of fake news can be punished in France, as the state Commission Nationale de Contrôle de la Campagne électorale pointed out before the 2017 presidential elections .

Examples

Russia

The alleged crucifixion of a boy by the Ukrainian military; Instrumentalization of xenophobic moods in the Lisa case ; "alternative theories" around the downing of MH17 .

United States of America

Fake FBI statistics found on racist Internet forums about rapes allegedly committed by blacks against white women prompted 21-year-old Dylann Roof to commit a racially motivated massacre of African-American churchgoers in Charleston, South Carolina in June 2015. “The fake news that Donald Trump produced when he ventured into politics for the first time had more political consequences : As the leader of the so-called Birther movement , he claimed that Barack Obama was not born in the USA and therefore not entitled to be US President his ... (thus) the Birther movement contributed to the fact that a part of the nation still wrote off Obama as un-American and illegitimate - and did everything to ensure that he could implement as little as possible politically. "

In the USA, the Breitbart News network in particular is associated with fake news . Well-known cases were the so-called “ACORN dismantling” in 2009 and the so - called “Friends of Hamas” campaign in 2013 .

In the run-up to the 2016 presidential election in the United States , some commentators found it problematic that numerous fictitious false reports were spread among users on Facebook . A lot of fake news was spread about Democratic candidate Clinton , allegedly linking her to satanism , pedophilia , murders and other topics. For example, a pizza restaurant in Washington under the heading Pizzagate had become the subject of a conspiracy theory against Hillary Clinton and her election campaign team. As a result, a 28-year-old man armed with rifles attacked this restaurant in an attempt to rescue Clinton's children from alleged child pornography. According to a study by the Pew Research Center , 44% of the American adult population use Facebook as a news source. The user accounts of alleged newsrooms told their readers on Facebook, for example, that Pope Francis or the Amish congregations of the USA would support the candidate and later President Donald Trump.

This was possible because the company Facebook monitors the flow of messages between its users, but does not subject the content to any editorial control. To make matters worse, spectacular false reports attract more readers, which was automatically registered by Facebook and artificially increased the importance of false reports in the news suggestions for other users.

With the networks distributing advertising revenue to the creators of popular hoaxes, part of the phenomenon appears to be due to reports made by people with no political interest for the sole purpose of making a profit. The city of Veles in Macedonia achieved international fame in 2016 because the citizens of this city turned operating websites with fake news into a business during the US election campaign. Similar problems were found at the Internet company Google , where false reports with reference to election campaigns were displayed as recommended news content.

For example, in the final phase of the election campaign in September 2016, an American invented a report according to which tens of thousands of ballot papers and ballot boxes filled in in favor of the candidate Clinton were found in a warehouse in Ohio . He placed the report on his own website, which he had rented for the purpose and designed it in the style of a news site, and provided the report with an archive photo that he had found on the Internet using a search engine. He achieved that his report was shared by around six million user accounts on social networks, which in a short time generated around 5,000 US dollars in advertising income.

Germany

At the beginning of 2016, the " Lisa case " in particular caused diplomatic resentment between Germany and Russia, as well as a similar, trumped-up charge in Lithuania against Bundeswehr soldiers in February 2017. A fake quotation from Renate Künast , incorrectly citing the source, led to legal disputes. In the context of the refugee crisis in Germany from 2015 on , there was also a report invented by a helper at the beginning of 2016 about a refugee who had died as a result of the long waiting times and circumstances at the LAGESO in Berlin . The Syrian refugee Anas M., who became publicly known through a selfie with Chancellor Angela Merkel , brought a lawsuit against Facebook at the Würzburg Regional Court after he was denigrated there as a “terrorist” among other things. An application for an injunction against Facebook was rejected. On New Year's Eve 2016, Breitbart spread the news that a church in Dortmund had been set on fire by a thousand men who had shouted “Allahu Akbar!”.

After the revelations on the possible role of false reports related to Donald Trump's presidential campaign 2015/16 the United States presidential election, 2016 various politicians demanded consequences for both the author of hoaxes and for the social networks that ensured its spread. Germany’s Justice Minister Maas at the time pointed out that defamation and defamation could threaten a public figure with up to five years in prison. Martin Schulz , then President of the European Parliament , threatened with corresponding European legislation if the corporations did not stop the spread of false reports of their own accord. According to Spiegel, the Federal Ministry of the Interior under Thomas de Maizière was planning a "defense center against disinformation campaigns ": "Since the focus is on public relations, the lead for this bundling unit to be created should be located at the Federal Chancellery ( Federal Press Office )". “Russian Germans” and “people of Turkish origin” are identified as particularly vulnerable population groups, for whom, according to the proposal, “political education work should be intensified”. In addition, the Federal Ministry of the Interior advises the parties to agree on the basic rules of the election campaign and against the use of social bots and fake news before the next state elections : "The acceptance of a post-factual age would be tantamount to a political surrender".

According to the “Facts instead of Fakes” study published by the New Responsibility Foundation at the end of March 2018, fake news in connection with the 2017 federal election campaign had a lower impact than was sometimes assumed compared to the reach of news from traditional media. The study showed, however, that “ right-wing populism ” strategically uses the “ echo chambers ” of “ social media ” and deliberately spreads false content.

Austria

In Austria, the journalist Florian Klenk filed a lawsuit against the Lower Austrian regional organization of the Austrian People's Party and its managing director in March 2017 , as this was his reporting on the Dr. Erwin Pröll Privatstiftung denigrated as "fake news". He hopes the court will clarify the question of what fake news is.

Italy

Both partners in the governing coalition of Cinque Stelle and Lega accused the media of waging a smear campaign against them and of being enemies of the people ; As Minister of Economics and Labor of all things , Luigi di Maio celebrated the supposed death of the print media, while his party was itself “front runner in the field of fake news” ( NZZ ): Their news portals also disseminated information from questionable Russian websites and are the basis of both populist parties prone to conspiracy theories . Meanwhile, according to NZZ, the Lega is torpedoing democratic processes with false reports , in contact with right-wing national circles in the USA.

China

According to research by the professor at the Faculty of Bio-Industry Communication and Development at Taiwan National University, Tai-Li Wang, China flooded the Republic of Taiwan with fake reports during the 2020 presidential election there. The island nation's free media industry would also come under pressure from Chinese infiltration or even acquisitions by the Taiwanese media. A Taiwanese official had committed suicide in 2018 after false reports and criticisms they had caused.

additional

Pope Francis puts the annual World Communication Day on May 13th (in Germany on September 9th) under the motto “The truth will set you free - fake news and journalism for peace”: “Targeted fake news generated and nurtured a polarization of public opinion ”.

In October 2017, US President Donald Trump claimed in an interview with Christian TV that he had coined the term fake in connection with the media (“I think one of the greatest of all terms I've come up with is' fake '. "). Serious commentators disagree (see origin ). The Trump-made Fake News Awards were presented on January 17, 2018. They can be understood as a continuation of his “campaign against unpleasant media”.

See also

literature

  • Gerd Antos : Fake News. Why we fall for them. Or: "I will make the world as I like it for you". In: Der Sprachdienst , Issue 1, 2017, pp. 3–22.
  • Lars-Broder Keil , Sven Felix Kellerhoff : Fake news make history. Rumors and hoaxes in the 20th and 21st centuries . Ch. Links Verlag, 2017, ISBN 978-3-86153-961-2 .
  • Wolfgang Schweiger: The (des) informed citizen on the net. How social media are changing opinion formation . Springer Verlag, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-16057-9 .
  • Roßnagel, Alexander , u. a., fake news . (PDF) Policy Paper, Forum on Privacy and Self-Determined Living in the Digital World, 2017.
  • Stephan Ruß-Mohl : The informed society and its enemies. Why digitization is endangering our democracy. 2017, Herbert von Halem Verlag, ISBN 978-3-86962-274-3 .
  • Karoline Kuhla: Fake News . Carlsen Klartext, Carlsen Verlag, Hamburg 2017, ISBN 978-3-551-31731-5 .
  • Soroush Vosoughi, Deb Roy, Sinan Aral: The Spread of True and False News Online . In: Science , Volume 359, Issue 6380, pp. 1146-1151. doi: 10.1126 / science.aap9559
  • Alexander Sängerlaub, fire brigade without water? Possibilities and limits of fact checking as a means against disinformation, New Responsibility Foundation, July 2018.
  • Volker Barth, Michael Homberg: Fake News. False News History and Theory . In: Geschichte und Gesellschaft , vol. 44, 2018, issue 4, pp. 619–642.
  • Stefan Primbs: What verification units do . In: G. Hooffacker, W. Kennemich, U. Kulisch (Ed.): The new public . Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2018.
  • Katrin Götz-Votteler, Simone Hespers: Alternative Realities? How fake news and conspiracy theories work and why they are topical. transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2019, ISBN 978-3-8376-4717-4 .

Web links

Wiktionary: Fake News  - Explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
  1. Part: A ghost is haunting, not just in Europe (March 1, 2017)
  2. Part: What is "fake news"? (March 3, 2017)
  3. Part: Did the Internet and Social Media Make Fake News Big? " (March 6, 2017)
  4. Part: Is Donald Trump really always wrong? (March 14, 2017)

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ see regulations: § 37 (E4), § 55 (3), § 45 (E1). Fake news. In: Digital dictionary of the German language . Retrieved February 17, 2017
  2. ↑ Gerd Antos: Fake News. Why we fall for them. Or: "I will make the world as I like it for you". In: Der Sprachdienst , Issue 1, 2017, p. 3.
  3. ↑ "Fake News", "post-factual" and "Lügenpresse" land in Duden , manager magazin , August 8, 2017; accessed on August 31, 2017
  4. ↑ Fake News, Fake-News, Fakenews, die , duden.de, accessed on August 31, 2017
  5. ↑ Karoline Kuhla: "Fake News", Carlsen Klartext, p. 67ff., Carlsen Verlag, Hamburg 2017, ISBN 978-3-551-31731-5
  6. ↑ Jannis Brühl, The Facebook Factor: A Shock to Democracy as We Know It in Süddeutsche Zeitung on May 2, 2017, accessed on February 2, 2018
  7. ↑ Patrick Beuth, Marc Brost, Peter Dausend, Steffen Dobbert and Götz Hamann: War without Blood, in Zeit-Online from February 26, 2017
  8. ↑ a b c Markus Appel (Ed.): The psychology of the post-factual: About fake news, "Lügenpresse", Clickbait & Co. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2019, ISBN 978-3-662-58694-5 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-662-58695-2 ( springer.com [accessed December 14, 2019]).
  9. ^ Markus Reuter: Fake news, bots and sock puppets - a definition of terms ; netzpolitik.org of November 29, 2016
  10. ↑ Elle Hunt: What is fake news? How to spot it and what you can do to stop it. In: The Guardian . December 17, 2016, accessed May 7, 2017 .
  11. ↑ Alexander Sängerlaub: Germany before the federal election: Fake news everywhere? August 23, 2017 ( stiftung-nv.de [accessed November 9, 2017]).
  12. ↑ Lying press hysteria subsides, media confidence increases , Institute for Journalism at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, accessed on April 12, 2018
  13. ↑ Interview with a fact checker - Is fake news more right than left? , n-tv of January 11, 2016, accessed on the same day.
  14. ↑ Facebook In Constant Battle Against Hoaxes, Scams And Fake News , International Business Times, January 30, 2015, accessed January 21, 2017
  15. ↑ Jen Weedon, William Nuland, Alex Stamos: Information Operations and Facebook (PDF) April 27, 2017 (English)
  16. ^ John Lanchester : You Are the Product . In: London Review of Books , August 177, 2017. In the original: Information (or Influence) Operations - Actions taken by governments or organized non-state actors to distort domestic or foreign political sentiment. False News - News articles that purport to be factual, but which contain intentional misstatements of fact with the intention to arouse passions, attract viewership, or deceive. False Amplifiers - Co-ordinated activity by inauthentic accounts with the intent of manipulating political discussion (eg by discouraging specific parties from participating in discussion, or amplifying sensationalistic voices over others). Disinformation - Inaccurate or manipulated information / content that is spread intentionally. This can include false news, or it can involve more subtle methods, such as false flag operations, feeding inaccurate quotes or stories to innocent intermediaries, or knowingly amplifying biased or misleading information.
  17. ↑ Anglicism of the year 2016 , responsible in terms of press law: Anatol Stefanowitsch , accessed on February 8, 2017
  18. ↑ The Real Story of 'Fake News'. In: merriam-webster.com. Retrieved October 23, 2017 .
  19. ↑ Trump brags that he invented the word 'fake', dictionary objects. In: abc.net.au. October 9, 2017, accessed October 23, 2017 .
  20. ↑ a b Michael Schaub: Trump's claim to have come up with the term 'fake news' is fake news, Merriam-Webster dictionary says. In: latimes.com. October 9, 2017, accessed October 23, 2017 .
  21. ↑ European Journalism Observatory ("European Journalism Observatory", EJO), April 28, 2017. Stephan Mündges: Disinformation on Facebook . de.ejo-online.eu, June 13, 2017
  22. ↑ trendmicro.com, June 13, 2017: Fake News and Cyber ​​Propaganda: The Use and Abuse of Social Media ("Fake News and Cyber ​​Propaganda: Use and Abuse of Social Media", June 13, 2017, English)
    Lion Gu , Vladimir Kropotov, Fyodor Yarochkin, Forward-Looking Threat Research (FTR), A TrendLabs Research Paper (PDF; 4.86 MB). The Fake News Machine How Propagandists Abuse the Internet and Manipulate the Public ("     The Fake News Machine. How Propagandists Abuse the Internet and Manipulate the Public ", June 13, 2017)
  23. ↑ a b Anja Bröker, Lena Kampf: Opinion making against money . tagesschau.de , June 13, 2017 ( WDR )
  24. ↑ Patrick Beuth, Marc Brost , Peter Dausend, Steffen Dobbert , Götz Hamann : War without blood . In: Die Zeit , No. 9/2017
  25. ↑ a b Facebook's “War Room” survived the midterms almost unscathed . In: NZZ , November 9, 2018
  26. ↑ Sonja Kind, Marc Bovenschulte, Simone Ehrenberg-Silies, Tobias Jetzke, Sebastian Wiede: Social Bots - Discussion and Validation of Interim Results . Ed .: Office for Technology Assessment at the German Bundestag. Berlin January 26, 2017, p. 4 .
  27. ↑ Sonja Kind, Marc Bovenschulte, Simone Ehrenberg-Silies, Tobias Jetzke, Sebastian Weide: Social Bots - Discussion and Validation of Intermediate Results . Ed .: Office for Technology Assessment at the German Bundestag. Berlin January 26, 2017, p. 6 .
  28. ↑ Hunt Allcott, Matthew Gentzkow: Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election . S. 11 , doi : 10.3386 / w23089 (English, nber.org [PDF]).
  29. ↑ Soroush Vosoughi et al .: The spread of true and false news online . In: Science . tape 359 , no. 6380 , 2018, p. 1146–1151 , doi : 10.1126 / science.aap9559 (English).
  30. ^ Hanno Beck: Behavioral Economics - Springer . S. 47 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-03367-5 ( springer.com [accessed April 28, 2017]).
  31. ↑ a b Lisa Fazio, David Gertler Rand, Gordon Pennycook: Repetition increases perceived truth equally for plausible and implausible statements . PsyArXiv, February 28, 2019, doi : 10.31234 / osf.io / qys7d ( osf.io [accessed December 14, 2019]).
  32. ^ Hanno Beck: Behavioral Economics - Springer . S. 38 f ., doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-03367-5 ( springer.com [accessed April 28, 2017]).
  33. ↑ How manipulable are the Germans? Wochenblatt , September 18, 2017, accessed on July 8, 2018 (press release).
  34. ↑ Peter Bieri : How would it be to be educated? (PDF) (No longer available online.) Berlin School of Economics and Law, archived from the original on February 3, 2018 ; Retrieved on February 2, 2018 (celebratory speech at the University of Education in Bern, November 2005).
  35. ^ Gerhard Raab, Alexander Unger, Fritz Unger: Market Psychology - Springer . doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-02067-5 ( springer.com [accessed April 28, 2017]).
  36. ↑ Michael Fritsch: Market failure and economic policy: microeconomic foundations of state action . 9th edition. Vahlen, 2014, ISBN 978-3-8006-4771-2 , pp. 245 .
  37. ^ Asymmetric Information and the Rise of Fake News: Networks Course blog for INFO 2040 / CS 2850 / Econ 2040 / SOC 2090. Accessed June 7, 2017 . The rise and rise of fake news. In: BBC News. November 6, 2016, accessed June 7, 2017 .
  38. ↑ Michael V. Bronstein, Gordon Pennycook, Adam Bear, David G. Rand, Tyrone D. Cannon: Belief in Fake News is Associated with Delusionality, Dogmatism, Religious Fundamentalism, and Reduced Analytic Thinking . In: Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition . tape 8 , no. 1 , March 1, 2019, ISSN  2211-3681 , p. 108–117 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jarmac.2018.09.005 ( sciencedirect.com [accessed December 15, 2019]).
  39. ^ Gordon Pennycook, David G. Rand: Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning . In: Cognition (=  The Cognitive Science of Political Thought ). tape 188 , July 1, 2019, ISSN  0010-0277 , p. 39–50 , doi : 10.1016 / j.cognition.2018.06.011 ( sciencedirect.com [accessed December 15, 2019]).
  40. ↑ Andrew Guess, Jonathan Nagler, Joshua Tucker: Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook . In: Science Advances . tape 5 , no. 1 , January 2019, ISSN  2375-2548 , p. eaau4586 , doi : 10.1126 / sciadv.aau4586 , PMID 30662946 , PMC 6326755 (free full text) - ( sciencemag.org [accessed December 15, 2019]).
  41. ^ Stephan Lewandowsky et al .: Beyond Misinformation: Understanding and Coping with the “Post-Truth” Era . In: Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition . tape 6 , 2017, p. 353-369 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jarmac.2017.07.008 .
  42. ↑ Coronavirus: Poisoning kills 300 in Iran after people believe fake news, drink methanol-based alcohol . In: International Business Times , March 27, 2020. Retrieved March 28, 2020.
  43. ↑ Construction company share crashes after fake news . In: Handelszeitung . November 23, 2016, ISSN  1422-8971 ( handelszeitung.ch [accessed on 28 April 2017]).
  44. ↑ Seth Fiegerman: The Curious Case of Cynk, an Abandoned Tech Company Now Worth $ 5 Billion. Retrieved April 28, 2017 (English).
  45. ↑ K. Rapoza, Can fake news impact the stock market? Forbes, February 26, 2017, accessed March 14, 2018.
  46. ↑ ndr.de , March 29, 2017, Daniel Bouhs: In the fight: EU against disinformation (June 13, 2017)
  47. ↑ euvsdisinfo.eu: EU vs Disinformation (English, Russian, June 13, 2017)
  48. ↑ Expert group on false news - EU wants to take action against disinformation. In: Deutschlandfunk. Retrieved March 12, 2018 .
  49. ↑ Snopes.com. Retrieved March 12, 2018 (American English).
  50. ↑ US service "Snopes" - "The term 'fake news' has become useless". In: Deutschlandfunk. Retrieved March 12, 2018 .
  51. ↑ With "faktenfinder" against targeted false reports: ARD launches anti-fake news portal , meedia on April 3, 2017
  52. ↑ Firefighters waiting for arsonists in Übermedien on September 13, 2017
  53. ↑ How to recognize opinion robots / tips for everyday online life: How to expose fakes , Teresa Sickert, Spiegel Online, January 19, 2017, accessed March 30, 2018
  54. ^ Fake news from Swiss radio and television
  55. ^ Tutoring in skepticism in the period from February 28, 2018
  56. ↑ Rumors about Germany. Retrieved October 23, 2017 (American English). Refugees: Website against rumors of smugglers about Germany launched . In: The time . October 23, 2017, ISSN 0044-2070 ( zeit.de [accessed October 23, 2017]).
     
  57. ↑ zeit.de , January 15, 2017: Facebook wants to flag fake news (January 21, 2017)
  58. ^ Adam Mosseri: Working to Stop Misinformation and False News. Facebook Newsroom, April 6, 2017, accessed April 28, 2017 .
  59. ↑ Tobias Keber: Fake News: Media Law Aspects and Regulation. (PDF) Hochschule der Medien Stuttgart, March 22, 2017, accessed on April 28, 2017 .
  60. ↑ Current legislative procedures | Law to improve law enforcement in social networks (Network Enforcement Act - NetzDG). BMJV , accessed on April 28, 2017 .
  61. ↑ "The law must be substantially improved". The time, accessed May 29, 2017 .
  62. ^ Center Against Terrorism and Hybrid Threats - Terorismus a měkké cíle. Retrieved April 28, 2017 (Czech).
  63. ↑ https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/wie-orban-in-der-corona-krise-gegen-kritiker-vorgangs-16770099.html
  64. ↑ Recommandation aux médias suite à l'attaque informatique dont a été victime l'équipe de campagne de M. Macron (PDF) République Française - Commission Nationale de Contrôle de la Campagne électorale en vue de l'Élection Présidentielle, 6 May 2017
  65. ↑ Kerstin Holm: This is how you lie with the greatest success . In: FAZ , February 27, 2017, accessed on June 7, 2019
  66. ↑ Lindsey Bever, 'I'm just a sociopath,' Dylann Roof declared after deadly church shooting rampage, court records say in The Washington Post on May 17, 2017, accessed January 2, 2018. (English)
    Charleston assassin found guilty Agency report in Süddeutsche Zeitung , December 15, 2016, accessed on January 2, 2018.
  67. ↑ Susan Neiman : Resistance of Reason, A Manifesto in Post-Factual Times . Ecowin Verlag, Salzburg / Munich 2017, ISBN 978-3-7110-0154-2 , p. 10
  68. ↑ a b Nick Wingfield, Mike Isaac, Katie Benner: Google and Facebook Take Aim at Fake News Sites . New York Times, November 14, 2016. (English)
  69. ↑ a b Mike McIntire: How a Putin Fan Overseas Pushed Pro-Trump Propaganda to Americans . New York Times , December 17, 2016. (English)
  70. ↑ Susan Neiman, Resistance of Reason, p. 7.
  71. ↑ Joseph Lichterman: Nearly half of US adults get news on Facebook, Pew says , Niemanlab, May 26, 2016. (English)
  72. ↑ Caitlin Dewey: Facebook fake-news writer: 'I think Donald Trump is in the White House because of me' . Washington Post, November 17, 2016. (English)
  73. ↑ How can Facebook fix its fake news problem? BBC , November 14, 2016 (English)
  74. ↑ City of Liars . In: Die Zeit , No. 52/2016.
    Sören Kittel: Fake news from Macedonia - Veles is the home of lies . Westfalenpost, December 28, 2016.
    Emma Jane Kirby: The city getting rich from fake news . BBC , December 5, 2016. (English)
  75. ↑ Nick Wingfield, Mike Isaac, Katie Brenner: Google and Facebook Take Aim at Fake News Sites . New York Times , November 14, 2016. (English)
  76. ^ Scott Shane: From Headline to Photograph, a Fake News Masterpiece . New York Times, January 18, 2017 (English)
  77. ↑ Fake news campaign against the Bundeswehr in Lithuania , Süddeutsche.de from February 16, 2017, accessed on February 18, 2017
  78. ↑ What is fake news? , tagesschau.de, accessed on December 12, 2016.
  79. ↑ Thomas Kutschbach: False report about a dead refugee in Berlin - Chronicle of a bad rumor , Berliner Zeitung of January 28, 2016.
  80. ↑ Syrian refugee sued Facebook , tagesschau.de of February 6, 2017, accessed on February 9, 2017.
  81. ↑ press release 5/2017; Judgment of March 7 , 2017 in the “Facebook proceedings” ( memento of the original of March 14, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. at justiz.bayern.de, accessed on March 13, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.justiz.bayern.de
  82. ↑ Dortmund police react to US horror report on New Year's Eve agency report from Spiegel Online from January 5, 2017, accessed on January 2, 2018.
  83. ↑ Maas calls for tougher action against “fake news” , faz.net, December 18, 2016.
  84. ↑ Interior Ministry wants to set up a defense center against false reports , Spiegel Online from December 23, 2016, accessed on March 1, 2017
  85. ↑ All clear on fake news? New study shows: false news in the federal election campaign had a lower reach than feared - algorithm ethics. In: Ethics of Algorithms. March 29, 2018, accessed March 31, 2018 .
  86. ↑ Cathrin Kahlweit: A matter of honor. In: sueddeutsche.de. March 30, 2017, accessed March 31, 2017 .
  87. ↑ Italy's populists view critical journalists as enemies of the people . In: NZZ , October 10, 2018
  88. ^ Adjunct Faculty // Department of Bio-Industry Communication and Development . In: National Taiwan University , 2020, accessed February 5, 2020.
  89. ↑ Lea Deuber: Digital Bombardment from China , Tages-Anzeiger , January 10, 2020, accessed on February 5, 2020.
  90. ↑ Pope warns of fake news . badische-zeitung.de , Computer & Medien , September 30, 2017
  91. ↑ Trump postpones award ceremony
    Patrick Gensing, Trump's media scolding: Who are the “award winners”? in Tagesschau Fact Finder from January 18, 2018, accessed on February 2, 2018
  92. ↑ Fake News - Historical fake news and rumors. In: Deutschlandfunk . Retrieved November 15, 2017 .
  93. ↑ Media in transition - "In the past, the journalists were the lock keepers". In: Deutschlandfunk . Retrieved October 15, 2017 .
  94. ↑ Alexander Sängerlaub: Fire brigade without water? (PDF; 241 kB) Possibilities and limits of fact checking as a means against disinformation. New Responsibility Foundation, July 2018, accessed on August 17, 2018 .