Wanderbaumelster

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Wanderbaumelster
Wandering tree monster (Dendrocitta vagabunda)

Wandering tree monster ( Dendrocitta vagabunda )

Systematics
Order : Passerines (Passeriformes)
Subordination : Songbirds (passeri)
Superfamily : Corvoidea
Family : Corvids (Corvidae)
Genre : Dangling star ( Dendrocitta )
Type : Wanderbaumelster
Scientific name
Dendrocitta vagabunda
( Latham , 1790)

The rufous treepie ( Dendrocitta vagabunda ) is a bird art from the family of corvids (Corvidae). Its distribution area is the south of Pakistan , the Indian subcontinent , rear India and large parts of subtropical Asia . Typical habitats of these tree monsters are forests and parkland, but occasionally also urban habitats. It is a large representative of the dangling star ( Dendrocitta ) and has black-white-brown plumage and a short, powerful beak.

Wanderbaumelstern feed mainly on fruits, small animals and carrion. They form family groups up to small swarms that go looking for food together. Depending on the geographical latitude, they hatch two to six eggs between February and June. The offspring are fed by both parents. Nine subspecies are recognized for the Wanderbaumelster, but the transitions between these are fluid. The world population of the species is unknown, however, with the exception of Vietnam, it is considered a common bird throughout its range. By BirdLife International will as not at risk ( least concern classified).

features

Physique and plumage

The Wanderbaumelster is a relatively large and strong songbird with a stocky build, relatively short legs and wings, a robust, curved beak and a long tail. The body length is between 46 and 50 cm. Both sexes reach roughly the same height, but the male usually has a longer tail. Birds from northern populations grow larger than those from the south of the range. 

Portrait photo of a hiking tree monster in profile
Profile shot of a hiking tree monster. The short nasal feathers and the texture of the head plumage are clearly visible .

Wandering tree stars weigh 90–130 g. The wing length is 144–173 mm, the running bone has a length of 32–37 mm. The short, curved and strong beak measures 30–37 mm from the base to the tip. The tail is between 189 and 363 mm long. The subspecies differ greatly: while the tail feathers of the south-west Indian subspecies D. vagabunda parvula are 189–239 mm long, the length of the Pakistani form D. vagabunda bristoli is 265–363 mm. 

Photo of this year's wandering tree monster on a branch
In young birds the plumage is lighter and less contrasting in color; their tail feathers have bright tips

The coloration is also variable in the area of ​​distribution, but always follows the same basic pattern. The short, stiff nasal feathers and the head plumage down to the chest and neck are black to gray in color. The back and shoulder feathers show a reddish sandy brown that becomes lighter towards the tail. The wing covers and the umbrella feathers are colored light gray to white, as are the outer flags of the inner three and, to a lesser extent, those of the next three arm wings . The rest of the wing is uniformly black, the remicle is well developed. The belly plumage is lighter sand-brown than the upper side of the body and becomes lighter towards the under tail-coverts. With some subspecies, the underside of the body can also tend towards the cream color. The control springs are heavily stepped and dirty gray at the base. They are adorned with a light gray subterminal band and a black end band , whereby the black color from the inside outwards takes up an increasing proportion of the feathers. The middle pair of feathers, which protrude well above the rest of the tail feathers, only have black tips, while the outermost pair is more than half black. Young birds have narrower central control feathers and are generally lighter and more washed-out in color, so that the black parts of the plumage appear more dark brown and the belly feathers appear more intense yellow. In addition, the tail feathers - with the exception of the middle pair - have sand-colored tips, by which the birds can be clearly recognized during their first year of life. 

The beak and wax skin of the Wanderbaumelster are colored slate gray, whereby the base of the beak is usually lighter than the tip. The inside of the beak and the corner of the beak are pink in young birds. The iris is dark red-brown regardless of age, the legs are dark horn-colored to slate-gray. 

Flight image and locomotion

The Wanderbaumelster usually flies at low altitudes and rarely over the treetops. Their flight is wavy, the wing beats are powerful. Normal flight is sometimes interrupted by fast, flapping wings or prolonged gliding. Characteristic are the round, wide wings and the clearly stepped tail, the middle pair of feathers protruding far beyond the other control feathers. Wandering tree stars usually move in the branches, where they jump, climb or even fly in the crown area with great agility. On the ground they move rather awkwardly compared to ravens and crows ( Corvus spp.), Because their long tails and short legs are a hindrance when walking. Accordingly, wandering dangling stars are rarely seen on the ground, where they usually hop and raise their tails. 

Vocalizations

A wandering tree monster calling on a fan palm
Calling wandering tree monsters

The calls of the trekking monsters are part of the typical soundscape of Indian forest and park landscapes. She has a wide repertoire of both loud and croaking as well as soft and melodious calls. The melodious, three-syllable ki-ko-kik or bob-o-link , which the birds with curved back and vertically angled tail utter from a seat guard, is particularly characteristic . A rattling clatter, similar to that of the real magpies ( pica ), is a call that is often heard and probably serves as a warning signal. A metallic ta-chack chak chak is also considered a characteristic utterance . In the breeding season the Wanderbaumelster lets out a long mii-aao ; Courting couples communicate with a variety of musical throat and croak sounds. 

Spreading and migrations

Map of South Asia with the distribution of the Wanderbaumelster and its subspecies marked in green
The species area of ​​the Wanderbaumelster is strongly influenced by the mountain ranges of South Asia

The migratory tree monster occurs in almost all of continental Asia south of the Himalayas . Your species area is largely determined by the mountain ranges of southern Asia and the vegetation areas. The western limit of the distribution area runs in a south-west direction along the Pakistani Hindu Kush foothills.

In the west of the Indus there is a gap in distribution with the Rann von Kachchh and the Thar . Apart from that, almost all of India and Bangladesh are inhabited by the wandering tree monster, only the Himalayas and its foothills form a distribution limit. In Southeast Asia, the distribution area extends to the northern Malay Peninsula and the Indochinese Peninsula , but spares the east of Thailand and the west coast of Vietnam . In Sri Lanka the migratory tree monster is absent despite suitable habitats, there is no other species of the genus. In the north-east, along the Himalayas and in China, the gray-breasted magpie ( Dendrocitta formosae ) is found; In the Golden Triangle and Orissa the two species areas overlap. The traveling tree monster was introduced in Singapore . 

Contrary to what its name suggests, the Wanderbaumelster is not a migratory bird . However, some populations undertake seasonal high-altitude migrations. For example, breeding pairs often migrate from the lowlands to the hill country and leave the higher elevations in winter. This is especially true for the populations on the southern edge of the Himalayas. 

habitat

Image of a wandering tree monster on a garden fence
Urban habitats are also colonized by the species if there are enough trees available there.

Sufficient tree population is essential for the choice of habitat for the migratory tree monster. Although very different habitats are populated by it, from light forests to agricultural areas, the breeding and sleeping possibilities are decisive. The Wanderbaumelster mainly uses deciduous trees and habitats in the lowlands and hills. It can be found there in dry as well as in moist, open and semi-open forests, but also in fields with trees, in steppes and plantations. Dense forests are avoided. The Wanderbaumelster is the only type of tree star to penetrate into urban habitats. It is a common bird in the cities and villages of southern Asia, inhabiting gardens, parks, and similar anthropogenic habitats. 

The vertical distribution of the Wanderbaumelster ranges from the lowlands to the hill country. As a rule, locations up to a height of 1000 m are settled. Locally, for example on the southern edge of the Himalayas, the species can also be found up to 2100 m. The prerequisite for this is the at least isolated presence of trees or woody plants along the slopes or in the valleys. In regions where the distribution area overlaps with that of the gray-breasted magpie ( D. formosae ), the migratory tree elster moves to lower altitudes or to anthropogenic habitats. 

Way of life

nutrition

A wandering tree monster eats from a hanging papaya
Wandering tree stars like to eat meaty fruits such as papayas

Wanderbaumelstern use a wide range of food sources. They mainly eat fruits, berries, seeds and invertebrates . Due to its preference for fleshy fruits, the species is persecuted as a pest in some places, but is also valued as a predator of the sago worm . It eats fruits of all sizes, from the berries of the cedar tree ( Melia azedarach ) to papayas and the pumpkin fruits of Trichosanthes tricuspidata . Most often, however, the fruits of various fig species ( Ficus spp.) Are eaten. Small vertebrates (lizards, birds and rodents ), carrion and human waste are also found in their diet. Eggs are likely to be eaten less frequently than is commonly assumed. 

Two wandering tree stars bathe in a puddle
Drinking and bathing are among the few activities that the Wanderbaumelster uses on the ground

The binding of the wandering tree monsters to trees also applies to nutrition. Most of the food is captured, collected and eaten in the branches or in the bushes. Wandering tree stars rarely come to the ground, for example when they are attracted by rich sources of food or want to drink and bathe. When looking for food, they act - depending on the situation - very shy or extremely curious and without any signs of fear. They often join other bird species and roam through the branches together with koels , flag drongos and green doves and catch insects they scare off. Together with cattle egrets, they peck parasites from the fur of sambars ( Rusa unicolor ), which willingly offer the birds infected parts of the body. Like other corvids, the migratory tree magpie is likely to hide excess food. However, it is unknown in what way and in what places it does this. Eaten carrion mostly comes from the carcasses of larger mammals. There Wanderbaumelstern jostle their way up the ranking , which, due to their maneuverability, they usually survive unscathed. Even away from carcasses, Wanderbaumelstern can appear very brisk: In tourist areas, wild birds eat out of the hand of visitors; in towns and villages they sometimes penetrate houses to catch insects, bats and geckos . 

Social and territorial behavior

Two wandering tree stars in the branches
Wanderbaumelstern usually move in pairs or family groups

Compared to other corvids, Wandering Dumbbells are moderately social. They form pairs or loose family groups of four to five people who go looking for food or wander through the branches together. If there is a good supply of food, however, up to 20 animals can join forces at times. These groups in turn join together to form mixed flocks with other bird species. 

Reproduction and breeding

Like many other corvids, wandering tree stars often form lifelong breeding pairs. During courtship, both partners sit a few centimeters apart on a waiting room, jerk their heads in the direction of the other, stretch their necks until their beaks almost touch and make chuckling and crowing noises. Both sexes take part in building the nest, incubating the eggs and feeding the young. 

Wanderbaumelstern breed between February and July. The main breeding season for the southernmost subspecies is between March and April and shifts backwards with increasing geographical latitude . The nest corresponds to the shape typical of the Corvidae family : a messy, loose structure in the form of a deep bowl, which lies on a platform made of thicker branches. For the nest, the Wanderbaumelster often interweaves thorn twigs with finer, thorny twigs and fine roots. For the size of the species, it is comparatively small and inconspicuous. The birds place it at a height of 6–8 m in large, freestanding and defoliated trees, for example Sheesham ( Dalbergia sissoo ), Indian frankincense ( Boswellia serrata ) or the acacia Acacia concinna . The clutch consists of 2–6 eggs, on average between 4 and 5. Northern populations lay larger clutches than southern ones. The eggs are on average 29.0 × 21.5 mm in size and very variable in shape and color. Usually they have a rosy-white basic color and are covered with red-brown and gray pits, especially at the blunt end. The breeding and nestling periods are unknown, the young remain with the parent birds for several months or years. 

Diseases and Causes of Mortality

Endoparasites of the migratory tree elster include the trypanosome Trypanosoma corvi and the suction worm Haplorchis vagabundi . As with many other corvids, the nestlings are susceptible to babesiosis caused by Babesia frugilegica . Ectoparasites found in the plumage of the species include the jaw lice Bruelia meinertzhageni and Philopterus vagabunda , whose type host is the wandering tree monster, and the louse fly Ornithophila metallica .

Systematics and taxonomy

The Wanderbaumelster was described in 1790 by John Latham in his directory Index ornithologicus sive Systema ornithologiæ using a museum bellows . At that time he assigned them to the racks (Coraciidae) as Coracias vagabunda . It was not until John Gould placed it in the genus Dendrocitta in 1833. Gould also submitted an explanation for the specific epithet chosen by Latham : Unlike the European magpie ( Pica pica ), the wandering tree monster does not remain quietly in a seat guard, but constantly moves from tree to tree through the branches. The name " Lanius rufus " (or " Dendrocitta rufa ") by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli from 1786 is not valid because the same name was used by Carl von Linné in 1766 for another species of bird.

The inner systematics of the dangle star has not yet been examined in more detail. Derek Goodwin classified the Wanderbaumelster due to external characteristics as the original representative of their genus and placed them in the vicinity of the masked tree magpie ( D. frontalis ). Nine subspecies are recognized for the Wanderbaumelster. However, the variation is largely clinical, i.e. the transitions between the individual subspecies are fluid. Birds from the northwest of the range tend to be the largest and lightest, southern forms smaller, eastern forms darker. 

For a long time, the subspecies D. vagabunda pallida, established by Edward Blyth in 1846, caused taxonomic confusion . Blyth had received the type specimen of the subspecies from Wilhelm Behn . He had bought the bellows at a market in Calcutta . Blyth believed the bird came from the western Himalayas. Later authors generally accepted this type locality uncritically, Claud Buchanan Ticehurst specified it in 1922 to Shimla . Although Blyth's measurements did not match those of northwestern populations, at most the measurements of the holotype, not the type locality, were called into question. Only Raymond Andrew Paynter, Jr. questioned Blyth's location information in 1961 and demanded that Galkund be designated as the new Typort in the Dangs in order to classify Blyth's type specimen in the clinical variation. Only Frank Steinheimer was able to prove in a revision of the holotype that it came from south-western India. Since the original type locality could no longer be determined, Steinheimer set Chennai as the new Typort. As a result, D. vagabunda pallida replaced the name D. vagabunda vernayi for the southeastern subspecies of the wandering tree monster . Steinheimer set D. vagabunda behni in honor of Wilhelm Behn as the new name for the north-western subspecies . 

Subspecies of the Wanderbaumelster
subspecies author Dimensions a plumage distribution annotation
D. v. behni Steinheimer , 2009 Blades: ♀ 137–165 mm, ♂ 149–173 mm;
Tail: 219-279 mm, ♂ 218-297 mm;
Beak: 29–34 mm, ♂ 31–34 mm;
Tarsus: 31 mm, ♂ 33–35 mm;
Weight: ♀♂ 90–130 g 		Very light plumage, belly almost cream-colored Western half of India Until 2009 as D. v. pallida led; named after Wilhelm Behn , from whom the type specimen came
D. v. bristoli Paynter , 1961 Blades: ♀ 158–174 mm, ♂ 157–179 mm;
Tail: 269-349 mm, ♂ 265-263 mm;
Beak: ♀ 30–35 mm, ♂ 32–37 mm;
Tarsus: 31–34 mm; ♂ 31-37 mm;
Weight: ♀ 120–143 g, ♂ 141–146 g 		Vividly colored shape Pakistan and Northwest India Named after Melvin Lee Bristol , botanist and organizer of the Harvard-Yale expedition on which the type specimen was shot
D. v. kinneari Baker, ECS , 1922 Wing: ♀♂ 137–151 mm;
Tail: ♀♂ 195–241 mm;
Beak: 31.0
Tarsus: ♀♂ 32.0 		Very dark shape Thailand and Eastern Myanmar Specific epithet honors Norman Boyd Kinnear
D. v. pallida ( Blyth , 1846) Blades: ♀ 137–152 mm, ♂ 145–158 mm;
Tail: 188–225 mm, ♂ 197–236 mm;
Beak: ♀ 29–33 mm, ♂ 29–35 mm;
Tarsus: 31–33 mm, ♂ 31–34 mm;
Weight: ♀♂ 90–95 g 		Rather light shape with a sand-colored belly and cloudy coat Southeast India south of the Eastern Ghats Originally described by Blyth as a separate species of Crypsirina pallida . Until 2009 as D. v. vernayi led; pallida Latin for pale, pale
D. v. parvula Whistler & Kinnear , 1932 Blades: ♀ 131–144 mm, ♂ 133–152 mm;
Tail: ♀ 196-204 mm, ♂ 189-239 mm;
Beak: ♀ 29–32 mm, ♂ 31–35 mm;
Tarsus: ♂ 30 mm 		Subspecies with the strongest colors and dark red-brown back Southwest India Specific epithet parvula Latin for small, small
D. v. sakeratensis Gyldenstolpe , 1920 Blades: ♀ 146 mm, ♂ 152–153 mm;
Tail: 222 mm, ♂ 236–241 mm;
Beak: ♀ 28 mm, ♂ 27–31 mm;
Tarsus: 31 mm, ♂ 31–33 mm 		Very dark and sharply demarcated neck, back reddish-ocher, underside of body light ocher-colored Eastern Thailand to Vietnam Specific epithet refers to the type locality Sakerat in Laos
D. v. saturatior Ticehurst , 1922 Wing: ♀ 147 mm;
Tail: ♀ 236 mm;
Beak: ♀ 32 mm;
Tarsus: ♀ 37 mm 		Darkest subspecies Tenasserim and Southwest Thailand Specific epithet (Latin saturare for saturate) refers to the dark tint of the plumage
D. v. sclateri Baker, ECS, 1922 Wing: ♀♂ 142–164 mm;
Tail: ♀♂ 242-282 mm;
Beak: ♂ 33–34 mm;
Tarsus: ♂ 33–35 mm 		Dark shape, neck and back color flow into one another Western Myanmar Specific epithet honors William Lutley Sclater
D. v. vagabunda (Latham, 1790) Blades: ♀ 136–161 mm, ♂ 146–168 mm;
Tail: ♀ 198-240 mm, ♂ 204-263 mm;
Beak: 30–34 mm, ♂ 30–35 mm;
Tarsus: 31–34 mm, ♂ 31–35 mm;
Weight: ♀ 98–118 g, ♂ 112–128 g 		Lively colored, back and shoulders deep reddish brown, underside of the body reddish-sand colored Eastern half of India Nominate form
a Unless otherwise noted, the information is based on the combined dimensions of Ali & Ripley 1983 , pp. 216–222, and Steinheimer 2009 , pp. 18–21.

Existence and settlement density

No estimates are available for the world population of wandering tree monsters. However, the species is almost consistently common to very common in its range. Only in Vietnam is it considered rare. BirdLife International therefore classifies the Wanderbaumelster as harmless ( least concern ). 

Cultural history

Color drawing of a hiking tree monster
The Wanderbaumelster in a drawing by Elizabeth Gould . It is possible that in ancient times the birds were a traditional gift from the Indians to their kings.

Aelianus Tacticus reports on a bird called Kerkorōnos (κερκορώνος), which the Indians worshiped their king. A Greek - Armenian dictionary from the Middle Ages assigns the jackdaw ( Corvus monedula ) to this word. William Arnott sees Kerkorōnos as the wandering tree monster: the jackdaw is often found in Armenia , but only very locally in India. In addition, the word component Kerkos (κερκος, Greek for tail) implies that the bird was a species with long control feathers, but the jackdaw only has a very short tail and is rather inconspicuous in color for a royal gift. A much more likely candidate is the Wanderbaumelster, which stands out for its long tail and high-contrast plumage.  Alfred Brehm mentions in his animal life that the wandering tree monster is traditionally a popular cage bird on the Indian subcontinent and is easy to tame.

swell

literature

  • Salím Ali, S. Dillon Ripley: Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 5: Larks to the Gray Hypocolius. Oxford University Press, London 1972.
  • Muhammad Atiqur Rahman Ansari: Some New Ischnoceran Mallophaga in the Zoological Survey Department, Karachi. In: Pakistan Journal of Scientific Research 8 (1), 1956. pp. 10-22.
  • William Geoffrey Arnott: Birds in the Ancient World from A to Z. Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-23851-X .
  • Edward Charles Stuart Baker: The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Birds - Vol. I. (Second Edition). Taylor and Francis, London 1922. ( Online )
  • SC Baugh: Contributions to our Knowledge of Digenetic Trematodes IV. In: Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde 22 (4), 1963. doi : 10.1007 / BF00260191 , pp. 303-315.
  • Edward Blyth: Notices and Descriptions of various New or Little Known Species of Birds. In: The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 15, 1846. pp. 1-280. ( Online )
  • Alfred Brehm: Brehm's Thierleben. General knowledge of the animal kingdom, fifth volume, second section: birds, second volume: birds of prey, passerines and clusters of birds. Publishing house of the Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig 1882.
  • EC Dickinson, RWRJ Dekker, S. Eck, S. Somadikarta: Systematic notes on Asian birds. 45. Types of the Corvidae. In: Zoologische Verhandelingen 350. pp. 111-148. ( Online )
  • Derek Goodwin: Crows of the World. 2nd Edition. The British Museum (Natural History) , London 1986, ISBN 0-565-00979-6 .
  • John Gould: On a new Genus in the Family of Corvidæ . In: The Transactions of the Zoological Society 1 (1), 1833. pp. 87-90. ( Online )
  • Nils Gyldenstolpe: Dendrocitta vagabunda sakeratensis. In: Bulletin of the British Ornithologist's Club. 41, 1920. p. 32. ( Online )
  • Joseph del Hoyo, Andrew Elliot, David Christie (Eds.): Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 14: Bush-shrikes To Old World Sparrows. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2009. ISBN 978-84-96553-50-7 .
  • John Latham: Index ornithologicus sive Systema ornithologiæ. London 1790. ( Online )
  • David M. Leslie jr .: Rusa unicolor (Artiodactyla: Cervidae). In: Mammalian Species 43 (871), 2011. doi : 10.1644 / 871.1 , pp. 1-30.
  • Steve Madge , Hilary Burn: Crows & Jays. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1994, ISBN 0-691-08883-7 .
  • Richard M. Mitchell, James A. Dick: Ectoparasites from Nepal Birds. In: Journal of the Bobay Natural History Society 74, 1975. pp. 264-274.
  • Pamela C. Rasmussen, John C. Anderton: Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Volume 1: Field Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2005. ISBN 84-87334-65-2 .
  • Raymond Andrew Paynter: Notes on some Corvidae from Nepal, Pakistan and India. In: Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 58 (2), 1961. pp. 379-386.
  • MA Peirce: A Taxonomic Review of Avian Piroplasms of the Genus Babesia. In: Journal of Natural History 34 (3), 2000. doi : 10.1080 / 002229300299507 , pp. 317-332. Starcovici, 1893 (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmorida: Babesiidae)
  • Pamela C. Rasmussen, John C. Anderton: Birds Of South Asia The Ripley Guide Volume 2: Attributes and Status. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2005. ISBN 84-87334-66-0 .
  • Craig Robson: A Guide to the Birds of Southeast Asia. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2000. ISBN 0-691-05012-0 .
  • Frank D. Steinheimer: The type specimens of Corvidae (Aves) in the Museum für Naturkunde at the Humboldt-University of Berlin, with the description of a new subspecies of Dendrocitta vagabunda. In: Zootaxa 2149, 2009. pp. 1-49.
  • Claud Buchanan Ticehurst: Dendrocitta vagabunda saturiator. In: Bulletin of the British Ornithologist's Club. 42, 1922. p. 56. ( Online )
  • Jan Votýpka, Julius Lukeš, Miroslav Oborník: 'Phylogenetic Relationship of Trypanosoma corvi with Other Avian Trypanosomes. In: Acta Protozoologica 43, 2004. pp. 225-231.

Web links

Commons : Wanderbaumelster ( Dendrocitta vagabunda )  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Latham 1790 , pp. 171-172.
  2. ↑ a b Madge & Burn 1994 , pp. 112-113.
  3. ↑ Goodwin 1986 , p. 182.
  4. ↑ a b Madge & Burn 1994 , p. 112.
  5. ↑ a b c Ali & Ripley 1972 , p. 219.
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g h Madge & Burn 1994 , p. 113.
  7. ↑ a b Ali & Ripley 1972 , pp. 219-220.
  8. ↑ a b Butchart & Ekstrom 2011 . Retrieved November 22, 2011.
  9. ↑ Madge & Burn 1994 , p. 36.
  10. ↑ del Hoyo 2009 , p. 517.
  11. ↑ a b c d e f Goodwin 1986 , p. 183.
  12. ↑ Robson 2000 , p. 371.
  13. ↑ del Hoyo 2009 , p. 501.
  14. ↑ Leslie 2011 , p. 17.
  15. ↑ Ali & Ripley 1972 , pp. 216-221.
  16. ↑ a b Votýpka et al. 2004 , 226.
  17. ↑ Baugh 1963 , p. 303.
  18. ↑ Peirce 2000 , p. 321.
  19. ↑ Ansari 1956 , p. 18.
  20. ↑ Mitchell & Dick 1975 , p. 271.
  21. ^ Gould 1833 , pp. 87-88.
  22. ↑ Dickinson et al. 2004 , p. 118.
  23. ↑ Goodwin 1986 , pp. 180-181.
  24. ↑ Rasmussen & Anderton 2005b , p. 595.
  25. ^ Paynter 1961 , p. 380.
  26. ↑ Steinheimer 2009 , pp. 16-17.
  27. ↑ Steinheimer 2009 , pp. 21-22.
  28. ↑ a b Steinheimer 2009 , p. 21.
  29. ↑ Paynter 1961 , p. 381.
  30. ↑ a b c Baker 1922 , p. 51.
  31. ↑ Blyth 1846 , p. 30.
  32. ↑ a b Gyldenstolpe 1920 , p. 32.
  33. ↑ Steinheimer 2009 , p. 20.
  34. ↑ Ticehurst 1922 , p. 56.
  35. ^ Arnott 2007 , p. 138.
  36. ↑ Brehm 1882 , p. 70.

A footnote directly after a statement only confirms this statement, a footnote directly after a punctuation mark the entire preceding sentence. A footnote after a space refers to the entire preceding paragraph.

This article was added to the list of excellent articles on February 20, 2012 in this version .