Shamanism research

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Research on shamanism describes the origins and historical development of the various concepts and theses with which scientists have tried to construct a cross-cultural shamanism from the religious and ideological phenomena observed by certain spiritual specialists (→ " shamans ") .

Shamanism concepts often describe less the underlying phenomena than the changes in the minds of the interpreters in the history of the spirit, particularly related to the interpretation of the term. The French theologian, ancient orientalist and religious scholar Julien Ries noted: “From the 19th century onwards, the discovery and study of the religions of Asia and other areas opened the way to an expanded concept [of religion] and to numerous different definitions that refer to the cultural and religious contexts, but at the same time also depended on the ideology of the authors. "

In this way, the construct of shamanism, together with the relativisms of research in the history of ideas, becomes a rather dazzling blend of romanticism , psychology , philosophy , politics , ethnology , anthropology , sociology and historical sciences, etc. up to modern esotericism . In connection with the religious-historical development of man, the consideration of this “shamanism mixture” requires careful analysis and criticism, because, according to Ries in connection with cave art: “It is the first major stage of conceptual thinking, a leap forward in the Training in symbolic thinking. With him a real religiosity emerges based on the experience of the sacred. ”The birth of modern man.

Basics and theoretical approaches

"What is referred to as a shaman or a shamanic event in these writings has little more than the word in common with what is to be understood in Siberia among the Chukchi, Tungus and Buriats under shamanism."

- Hartmut Zinser

All research that uses the term shamanism is based on the transfer of an initially single-language term to cultures in other languages (→ Etymology Shaman ) . At first this only happened in the Siberian cultural area , which was constructed by research as a cultural unit, then the concepts of “shaman” and “shamanism” were applied globally. There are in almost all cultural complexes similar ideas such as the belief in a world of ghosts and myths and cults , which in comparative cultural viewed from eurozentrischem stood view on various concepts Godfather: These include the animism , animalism , totemism , fetishism , ancestor worship and shamanism.

The history of the concepts of shamanism cannot be separated from the research history of the concept of religion and the related other concepts mentioned above. All of these terms are often strongly determined by the mindset of the epoch in which they were formulated, scientifically justified and discussed. Several approaches, which are also relevant for shamanism, have had a strong influence on the development, but today must in some cases be considered outdated.

Numerous shamanistic theories have emerged over the past century and a half.

Certain psychological theories and evolutionary biological and related older anthropological approaches are only of importance in the history of science today. Even older cultural-historical, above all prehistorically defined theories are hardly verifiable and must therefore remain speculative, which is why the so-called prehistoric shamanism, despite all plausibility, was also separated out in the above presentation, since the intercultural analogy conclusions that it requires over long periods of time are always problematic.

Psychological theories

In (older) psychological theories, shamanism is often viewed psychopathologically, i.e. as a pathological phenomenon which, in connection with the Siberian shamans, was given the name "arctic hysteria" and with "Menerik's disease" (a term from Yakut ), epilepsy , of Huntington's disease and schizophrenia has been linked. The depth psychological approaches of Sigmund Freud and Carl Gustav Jung on the subject of religion do not lead here either, although they were definitely important in their time as scientific initiators.

Evolutionary and older anthropological theories

Similar restrictions apply to these scientific-historical perspectives, which originated primarily in the 19th century. At that time, shamanism was either a term from a colonialist, arrogant perspective for “primitive religions” (as in Sergei Alexandrovich Tokarew , for example ); or a purely biological term, such as in the theories on the origins of religion by Herbert Spencer , Nicolas-Sylvestre Bergier or Edward Tylor .

The more modern anthropological, no longer evolutionistically determined viewpoints, however, are mostly closely related to the ethnological ones.

Cultural historical theories

The theories directed towards prehistory are based on the numerous archaeological evidence of religious thought since the Upper Paleolithic . That as Müller-Karpe , "the figurative art of the Upper Paleolithic its essence belongs to the realm of religion is generally accepted in research. However, opinions differ considerably as to the type of religious ideas, actions and concerns expressed in it. ”Whether this can be equated with classic Siberian shamanism is disputed and hardly verifiable. In addition, it would be a transfer of ethnological to prehistoric phenomena. Nevertheless, the term “prehistoric shamanism” is often used by representatives of the archaeological and historical disciplines in the sense of a category , as rock and cave paintings from different cultures and epochs (e.g. Khoisan of South Africa and Namibia, Aboriginal Australians, Indians of North America, French Cantabrian Cave art ) remind of shamanic practices. This results from the enormous expenditure of time, often thousands of years (the Altamira cave about 5000 years) for the production and constant renewal of the rock and cave paintings. Such picture caves are consistently referred to as paleolithic sanctuaries and places of worship, which presumably had a large catchment area.

Important representatives of this research direction were or are André Leroi-Gourhan , Abbé Henri Breuil , Annette Laming-Emperaire, Emmanuel Anati, Louis-René Nougier, Denis Vialou and David Lewis-Williams, to name just a few.

Ethnological and sociological theories

These concepts, which can be strongly anthropologically determined, especially in the case of ethnology, overlap and overlap, so that a distinction must be made primarily according to focus. Accordingly, the following main assignments and representatives result:

Such attempts at interpretation often show an unclear distinction between shamanism, magic and totemism . With the sociology of religion they developed, Durkheim, Mauss and Weber examined above all the social conditions and forms of religion, with a focus on their social influence, to which they also subordinated shamanic symptoms.

Wilhelm Schmidt, in turn, of the German direction of diffusionism attributable - especially the well of Leo Frobenius coined Kulturkreislehre , later as racist was abandoned. - saw the origin of shamanism rather in early agricultural mother right cultures. Jensen, who was influenced by the existential philosophy of Otto Friedrich Bollnow , assigned him to an older, wild and field-exploiting cultural layer and saw the existential fear of early humans from the acute threats to existence as the main motive. Neither of the authors developed any comprehensive concepts of shamanism.

Phases of the history of science

Research on shamanism in the 18th century

The first European travelers described the shamans and their practices since the end of the 17th century among various indigenous peoples of Siberia and Central Asia, mostly with colonial- western arrogance as “primitive misbeliefs” and “strange spectacles”. The scientific study of shamans began in the first half of the 18th century, when German researchers traveled to Siberia on behalf of the newly founded Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and presented the first complete descriptions of shamanic séances . In the spirit of the Enlightenment they showed skepticism towards the demonstrations of the shamans. Gerhard Friedrich Müller , for example, emphasized that not only did the séances all take place in the same way, but nothing unbelievable happened either. He describes the process as senseless skipping around while the shaman beats a flat drum. Johann Gottlieb Georgi , also a researcher in Siberia, showed similarly little interest in the shamanic séances and condemned them as magical "trickery" or as "Gauckeleyen like someone possessed".

The first researchers paid more attention to the geology and flora in Siberia and Mongolia. They treated the techniques of the shamans as part of the manners and customs, but referred to the shamanic customs as "superstition", as Peter Simon Pallas describes them in his writings on the Mongolian peoples.

Johann Gottfried Herder , however, tried to create a neutral description of the ethnic religions . In the course of German Romanticism, authors such as Ferdinand von Wrangel glorified shamanism and spoke of “native geniuses” who follow their calling as “creative personalities with a sharp mind, strong will and sparkling imagination”.

At the end of the 18th century, the skepticism of the first researchers gave way and shamanism was interpreted as an early form of religion. Pallas allowed the shamans to practice some form of healing . In the first attempts to construct a shamanism in Siberia, researchers like Friedrich Max Müller wanted to find out the origin of these practices. He (not related to Gerhard Friedrich Müller) was not convinced that the shaman techniques had only one origin; Nevertheless, he assumed that such shamanism first originated in India and from there spread across Asia, to Scandinavia and possibly to North America.

19th century and institutionalization of field research in the early 20th century

The Russian conquest of Siberia since the 17th century had brought the local population to the brink of extinction within two centuries through the influence of alcohol, infectious diseases and processes of displacement. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Christianization broke through the indigenous population with violence and massacres, until finally - albeit without far-reaching effect - in 1824 a “law for the protection of the natives” tried to stop these processes.

Ethnology, which established itself after the Romantic era, first developed - first in Russia in particular - first theses in which shamans were viewed as psychotic and their modes of expression as "arctic hysteria". This disease was attributed to the extreme climatic conditions combined with malnutrition. The Swedish historian of religion Åke Ohlmarks expressed himself in this way in 1939 and the American anthropologist William W. Howells in 1948. Later epilepsy or schizophrenia were related to shamanism. The last advocate of "pathologically induced shamanism", which is now abandoned, was the ethnopsychologist Georges Devereux († 1985).

The Buryate Dorji Banzarov (1822–1855) was the first scholar to try to look at shamanism from an indigenous perspective without seeing it as an expression of the "primitive". He not only emphasized the peculiar customs of the shamans in Mongolia, but also criticized the claim by previous researchers that this was nothing but a wild variation of the Tibetan Buddhist belief.

Researchers like the Finn Matthias Alexander Castrén (1813-1852) and Wilhelm Radloff (1837-1918) followed Banzarov's approach . It was only as a result of Radloff's research in the second half of the 19th century that the first cultural comparisons with similar phenomena from other parts of the world were gradually made. Castrén emphasized the important role of the Siberian shamans within their community, whose collective cohesion they would not only strengthen with their performances, but also symbolize the resistance to the imponderables of nature. Radloff continued the work of Banzarov and Castrén in a certain way, because he was the first to publish the translation of the text of a shamanic séance, and he also placed the shamanism he had constructed on the same level as Buddhism , Christianity and Islam and sat like Banzarov for its independence. Radloff therefore remained the most important author of shamanism until the beginning of the 20th century.

In the early 20th century , the idea that shamanism only occurs in the far north of Asia became firmly established. The reason for this were two comprehensive ethnographies about the Koryaks and the Chukchi by Vladimir Germanowitsch Bogoras and Waldemar Jochelson (both had been exiled by the tsar), which explicitly differentiated between family and professional shamans. Bogoras also described shamans as nervous, irritable people on the verge of insanity.

Later Soviet authors discussed the emergence and changes of a shamanism on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist ideology and raised the question of whether it was a young, older or very old phenomenon, whereas shamanism in the West primarily perceived as an archaic system has been. After the October Revolution had initially brought improvements for the inhabitants of Siberia, the shamans there were increasingly persecuted in the Soviet Union because they withdrew from the socialist worldview. At the same time one tried to press the population into the scheme of Homo sovieticus and smashed through forced collectivization , mass immigration and industrialization as well as through a boarding system the economic and cultural requirements of the Siberian shamanism and its social basis. The Soviet party ideologist Mikhail Andrejewitsch Suslow - later one of the most powerful men in the CPSU after Stalin and Beria - even described shamans in a pamphlet in 1931 "Shamanism and the fight against it" as a "social evil" of the first order and as an "obstacle to socialist construction" , and called for their culture to be smashed through the means of propaganda, coercion and re-education. Many shamans submitted to this compulsion, and the rest could only practice hidden underground. Therefore, as a protective measure, ethnological reports were written in the past tense. The reports of the Soviet ethnographers contributed to the politically desired impression that shamanism was a "dying phenomenon". Only in the end of the Soviet Union from the 1970s and the post-communist era did this situation change, and there was a kind of renaissance of Siberian shamanism.

Factual interpretation patterns of the 20th and 21st centuries

The ethnologist Franz Boas was instrumental in expanding the term shamanism to North America . He and a few colleagues after him valued the respectful attitude of Herder's philosophy towards non-European cultures and therefore placed great value on the subjective and intuitive experiences of these people. This led to a certain romanticization and idealization of the Indian cultures they researched. This attitude had a decisive influence on all those shamanism concepts that focus on spiritual-religious trance experiences. As early as the turn of the 20th century, the academic metaphor of a shamanistic complex was established in America , which ostensibly extended from Siberia to North America and was extended to South America a little later through Carl Lumholtz's research. The fact that in some tribes all people went on a vision search and there was no separate expert for it or that certain hallucinogenic drugs (so-called entheogens ) in South America make almost everyone a shaman was ignored. In the end, it was Eliade who, in the context of ecstatic trance, extended his shamanism to the Pacific region and Southeast Asia and, with restrictions, to India and China.

At the beginning of the 20th century, psychological and psychoanalytic interpretations of shamanic phenomena became popular: the researchers base their statements primarily on the approach of Carl Gustav Jung, in particular his theory of archetypes . Jung himself did not develop a concept of shamanism, but such phenomena were now seen, based on psychoanalysis, more as a social institution with the help of which fears can be symbolically expressed or processed. Other interpretations related to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. He dealt intensively with religious and cultural-theoretical problems, for example in “ Totem und Tabu ” (1912/13), and saw the aids used by shamans as an allusion to erotic symbols. However, this view is no longer held in this form.

From 1935 onwards, the focus was placed on the interaction with ghosts for a few years without questioning this further. A typical definition read: “In all Tungusic languages ​​this term (saman) denotes people of both sexes who have come to dominate the spirits, can willingly call the spirits into themselves and can use the power over these spirits for their own purposes, especially for this purpose to help other people who suffer from the spirits. "

Mircea Eliade

The Romanian theologian and Roman -author Mircea Eliade , it was finally in 1951 the term "shamanism" coined decisively and made popular worldwide. Eliade saw in it the oldest form of the sacred , indeed the cross-cultural archetype of every occult tradition in general. His universal cultural-philosophical approach is seen today as very speculative and romanticizing. <203>

Eliade put with its comprehensive Shamanism concept the foundation for all those theses that a claim for universality collected and the shamanism in "suggestive" way to a supposedly original indigenous ideology levied. Eliade's concept is now considered to be partly very speculative, universalistic and partly romanticizing, impressionistic. Above all, in his book “Le Chamanisme et les techniques archaïques de l'extase”, published in 1951, he combined Wilhelm Schmidt's theory of primeval monotheism with CG Jung 's theory of archetypes , including the research of Wilhelm Radloff and many Russian and Finnish ethnographers on Siberian shamanism. The theories of Eliade - who himself never met a shaman - are based on the widespread belief that people of the early days led a sinless "paradisiacal" existence and were in direct contact with the Creator God. The memory of it later lived on in the images of the world tree, sky rope and the cosmic bridge, as they can be found in Siberia and (allegedly) numerous other religions to this day. As a result of an inadvertent misdemeanor of people, which is reported in myths about the fall of man all over the world , contact was broken off and the deity withdrew as Deus otiosus to distant parts of the sky. Only a few chosen people, the shamans, are allowed to bridge this gap by means of an ecstasy technique ; the underworld trip, which did not quite fit into this scheme, was classified as a secondary phenomenon by Eliade. In contrast, Siberian shamanism - which other authors like to see as an archetype - is a product of transformation from the influences of the archaic high cultures of the ancient Near East and later Lamaism. Ecstasy is of central importance to Eliade; he accordingly defined shamanism as an archaic ecstasy technique and identified the shaman as a master of ecstasy . Shamans were Eliade as charismatic hero figures who promoted the spiritual renewal of tribal societies through their religious actions, very similar to Max Weber's concept. However, he does not count obsession as shamanism.

The translation of the book into English in 1964 took place in Europe and America at a time of growing interest in tribal societies and their spiritual practices. The book fascinated academics and laypeople and shaped the perception of the phenomenon for decades. The interpretation of Eliades and his definition of shamanism as a universal phenomenon was partly adopted by later scientists. In the meantime, however, Eliade has been increasingly criticized by social anthropologists and religious scholars. His definitions of shamanism, ecstasy and soul travel are too essentialistic , too broad and not applicable to concrete ideas. (see also: Spiritual Shamanism Concepts: Origins, Popularity and Criticism )

A major consequence of Eliade's work was the development of neo-shamanism in the 1960s.

Autobiographical Ethnographers

In the late 1960s, the (alleged) self-awareness reports of the American anthropologist Carlos Castañeda , which were written in a novel-like manner, sparked enormous interest even among a mass audience almost worldwide. The focus of his work was on the archaic ecstasy technique preformulated by Eliade , which he stylized as a decisive characteristic of shamanic practices. In the context of the socially critical countercultures of that time (for example the hippie movement), this fell on fertile ground and was soon viewed as a ritualized way of experiencing nature and self in the sense of an alternative spirituality.

In 1980 Michael Harner's concept of core shamanism appeared , which declared shamanism to be the universal original religion and all of its forms to homologous differentiations (originating in common). Harner is one of the autobiographical ethnographers of the 20th century and his career is the best example of the individual transformation from scientifically working ethnologist to practicing necromancer who calls himself a shaman . The Foundation for Shamanic Studies founded by Harner has significantly influenced the development of esoteric neo-shamanism . Here a kind of “shamanism light” is conveyed to a broad audience in various courses, which (supposedly) manages without risky elements such as drug consumption or ecstatic trance. At the same time, Harner's institute established various contacts between western esotericists and traditional shamans. Again, not only ethnographic reports are collected, but there is an active exchange in both directions. The relatively well-preserved traditional shamanism of the Tuvins in South Siberia is changing drastically as a result: possibly in a direction that will soon have nothing in common with the original traditions of this people.

Different focuses of the late 20th century

Already in the 1960s Adolf Ellegard Jensen missed the reference to the existential subsistence problems of people at Eliade , which in his opinion are a prerequisite and formative for all human cultural phenomena. Accordingly, he located the origin of shamanism reduced to a kind of "healing magic" in the hunter-gatherer cultures. The permanent fear of the threats to existence would have led to seek protection and hope from the spiritual powers. Jensen's thought, however, has been criticized for being too general.

By 1970 shamanic practices became the subject of neurology. For example, Raymond Prince assumes that both the shamans' altered states of consciousness and their healing successes are due to endorphins ("happiness hormones"), psychologically conditioned processes such as hypnosis or placebo effects , or through drums and dance rituals, whose mode of action he uses Acupuncture compares.

In 1977, Claude Lévi-Strauss pointed out the symbolic level of the shamanic ritual, which he preferred as the decisive phenomenon: “The shaman gives his patients a language in which unformulated - and otherwise not formulated - conditions can be expressed directly. And the transition to this linguistic form of expression (which at the same time makes it possible to experience an experience in an orderly and understandable form that would otherwise remain anarchic and inexpressible) leads to the solution of the physiological process, that is, to the favorable reorganization of that series, the course of which the patient takes submits. "

In 1984 Mihály Hoppál and 1990 Roberte N. Hamayon limit their concepts again to the classic Siberian forms. In general, a negative attitude towards strongly generalizing shamanisms is slowly gaining ground.

Hamayon sees the terms “ ecstasy ” and “ trance ” as insufficient to describe the shaman's state. By combining the figure of the shaman with the symbolic reproduction of the community, the social function of the shaman comes to the fore and places him in a cultural and social context. In her work “La chasse à l'âme” (1990) Hamayon differentiates between hunting and shepherd shamanism as two types of original shamanism in Siberia.

In 1990, David Lewis-William linked rock art from historic San South Africa to prehistoric shamanism. In his work "The Mind in the Cave", which was first published in 2002, the cultural historian, anthropologist and specialist in San rock art , who is also active in field research , deals primarily with the spiritual requirements of paleolithic cave art and its relevance for prehistoric shamanism, whereby he incorporates the latest neurological research. He also includes recent shamanic phenomena, for example among the toucano- speaking peoples of South America, North American Eskimos and Indians, as well as other ethnic groups such as the Siberian peoples in his considerations.

In addition, many authors at the end of the 20th century see the phenomenon primarily as healing rituals, the spiritual aspects of which are secondary. The three-stage classification model of shamanism, developed by Klaus E. Müller in 1997 , based on the person of the shaman as an “expert and mediator” to the (supposedly) almighty world of spirits and the resulting social obligations, is roughly in this way of thinking .

See also

Web links

Commons : Shamanism  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Shamanism  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Ries, p. 7.
  2. ↑ Ries, p. 42.
  3. ↑ Hartmut Zinser: Shamanism in the “New Age” in: Michael Pye, Renate Stegerhoff (ed.): Religion in foreign culture. Religion as a minority in Europe and Asia. dadder, Saarbrücken 1987, ISBN 978-3-92640611-8 . P. 175.
  4. ↑ Müller, pp. 102-120; Box, pp. 172-187.
  5. ↑ Ries, pp. 11-25.
  6. ↑ Box, p. 173 f.
  7. ↑ Box, p. 179 f.
  8. ↑ Ries, p. 22 f.
  9. ↑ Müller-Karpe: Handb. D. Pre. Vol. I: Paleolithic, 1977, p. 242.
  10. ↑ Lewis-Williams, pp. 136-179.
  11. ↑ Ries, pp. 34-42.
  12. ↑ Klaus E. Müller, pp. 110-111.
  13. ↑ Klaus E. Müller, p. 104.
  14. ↑ Georgi, JG 1775: Comments on a trip in the Russian Empire in 1772. First volume. St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences. P. 284.
  15. ↑ Pallas, PS 1801: Collections of historical information about the Mongolian peoples. St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences. Second part. Pp. 246-247.
  16. ↑ Berthold Laufer: orgin of the Word Shaman . American Anthropologist, 19: 3, pp. 361-371 (1917).
  17. ↑ Gorbacheva, pp. 47-50.
  18. ↑ Klaus E. Müller, pp. 104-105
  19. ↑ Gorbatcheva, pp. 47-55, 179 f.
  20. ↑ Klaus E. Müller, pp. 107-108.
  21. ↑ WG Bogoras: The Chukchee. The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol. 7. AMS Press, New York 1975. (1904-1909)
  22. ^ W. Jochelson: The Koryak. The Jesup North Expedition. Vol. 6. AMP Press, New York 1975 [1908].
  23. ↑ UN Basilov: The Study of Shamanism in Soviet Ethnography . In: M. Hoppál, V. Dioszegi (eds.): Shamanism in Eurasia. Part 1, 46-49 (1984). Edition Herodotus, Göttingen.
  24. ↑ box, p. 170 f .; Gorbacheva, pp. 50-53; Müller, p. 121 ff.
  25. ↑ Nikolai Ssorin-Chaikov: Evenki Shamanistic Practices in Soviet present and Ethnographic Present Perfect. Anthropology of Consciousness 12 (1): 1-18 (2001).
  26. ↑ Gorbacheva, p. 53 f.
  27. ↑ Marvin Harris: Cultural Anthropology - A Textbook. From the American by Sylvia M. Schomburg-Scherff, Campus, Frankfurt / New York 1989, ISBN 3-593-33976-5 . P. 285.
  28. ↑ Andrei A. Znamensky: General introduction - Adventures of the metaphor: shamanism and shamanism studies. In: AA Znamenski (Ed.): Shamanism: Critical Concepts in Sociology . Vol. 1, pp. 29-86. Routledge & Curzon London / New York 2004.
  29. ↑ Shirokogoroff, Tungus (1935), p. 269.
  30. ↑ Kai Funkschmidt: Shamanism and Neo-Shamanism . In: Evangelical Central Office for Weltanschauungsfragen ezw-berlin.de, Berlin, 2012, accessed on February 4, 2015.
  31. ↑ Eliade: Shamanism, p. 14.
  32. ^ Weber: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, 1921, pp. 140 ff., 256.
  33. ↑ Thomas, Nicolas and Caroline Humphrey 1996: Introduction. In: Humphrey, pp. 1-12.
  34. ↑ Anett C. Oelschlägel : Plurale Weltinterpretationen. The example of the Tyva of South Siberia . SEC Publications, Fürstenberg / Havel 2013, ISBN 978-3-942883-13-9 . Pp. 31, 60f.
  35. ↑ Klaus E. Müller, pp. 112-113.
  36. ↑ Raymond Prince: The Endorphins and: Shamans and Endorphins . Ethos. Journal of the Society for Psychological Anthropology 10 (4): 303-316; 409-423 (1982).
  37. ↑ Levi-Strauss, Anthropologie (1977), p. 217
  38. ↑ Kakar, Schamanen (2006), p. 116.
  39. ↑ Hamayon, pp. 287, 605.
  40. ↑ Lewis-Williams, p. 132.
  41. ↑ Klaus E. Müller, pp. 8–9, 19–20.

A. Karin Riedl: artist shamans. On the appropriation of the shaman concept with Jim Morrison and Joseph Beuys. transcript, Bielefeld 2014. ISBN 978-3-8376-2683-4 .

  1. ↑ Riedl, pp. 67-68.
  2. ↑ Riedl, pp. 91-98.
  3. ↑ Riedl, pp. 89-90, 98-99.
  4. ↑ Riedl, pp. 102-103.