Dano-Swedish War (1658–1660)

Dano-Swedish War (1658-1660)
Part of Northern Wars
Date August 5, 1658 - May 26, 1660 Location Denmark Result Danish victory
Belligerents
Sweden	Denmark-Norway Netherlands Brandenburg-Prussia Poland
Commanders and leaders
Charles X Gustav Carl Gustaf Wrangel Gustaf Otto Stenbock	Frederick III Hans Schack

Charles X Gustav's second Danish war (Danish: Anden Karl Gustav-krig, Swedish: Karl X Gustavs andra danska krig) was a war between Denmark-Norway and Sweden. It was a continuation of an earlier conflict which had ended just months earlier, after Sweden and Denmark brokered a peace agreement in Roskilde in 1658. In the aftermath of that conflict, the Swedish king, Charles X Gustav, had set his eyes upon Brandenburg and Austria to enable a campaign against Poland. However, the Swedish king believed that the Danes were not sincere in their desire for peace; along with his privy council, he decided upon a quick conquest of Denmark so that they could wage a campaign in Europe without fearing a Danish attack.

The Swedish army surrounded Copenhagen, hoping to starve it into submission. This failed when the Dutch joined the conflict on the Danish side and a relief fleet managed to smash its way through the Swedish naval forces in Oresund. Charles then tried a decisive attack, hoping to conquer the city and win the war; this plan likewise plan failed. Brandenburg, Poland and Austria then joined the war against the Swedes.

Charles X Gustav of Sweden

Frederick III of Denmark

Background

Charles X of Sweden had concluded the earlier conflict with Denmark with a stunning victory with the March across the Belts, forcing Denmark into a humiliating peace in the Treaty of Roskilde in which the entire eastern part of the country was lost. Europe was stunned by the quick victory, and Charles did not fail in publicizing his accomplishments.. However, peace had its own problems. In the peace treaty, Denmark was forced to supply the Swedish army with provisions until May, but soon thereafter the army would need to be moved. The Swedish King knew that the army would not be able to be supplied in Sweden for long, and disbanding it was not appetizing with the Poles thirsting for revenge. Sweden was not in want of enemies to attack: Livonia and Estonia were considered, but rejected due to supply problems. Charles wanted to punish Frederick William of Prussia, but the many enemies in Brandenburg, Poland and the hostility of the Dutch would make this a difficult endeavor. The surprising Swedish solution to this bind would be to return to Denmark, in an attempt to finish the job.

Events

In June 1658 the Swedish decision to attack is taken. On August 6, 1658 a fleet of 70 ships with 5700 men and 18 pieces of light artillery embarked upon a journey to Denmark. Since the previous war, Jylland was still occupied by Swedish troops and there were troops on Fyn. In addition, field marshal Gustav Otto Stenbock had assembled additional troops in Scania.

The plan is for the Swedish army to march on Copenhagen.

Siege on Copenhagen

On August 11, 1658 Charles X of Sweden his forces reached Valby hill (now Fredriksburg) from where they could see into the danish capital. His arrivial was not unexpected, Frederick III had already ordered every building outside the city walls burnt, which had housed a third of the population of he city. That same day the city gates were closed, they would not open again for another 22 months. A Swedish fleet of 28 ships blocked the harbor, preventing resupply from the sea. The siege had begun.

When the Swedish king arrived to find half the city in flames and the Danes willing to put up a fight he had a difficult decision to make, whether to press forward immediately or lay siege on the city and try to starve it. His advisers were divided, and the king ultimately decided on the latter route. The wisdom of this decision has been questioned, the Danish defenses were in poor shape initially. However, the population of Copenhagen rallied behind Frederick III and the walls, moats and other defensive structures of the city were quickly improved. A large number of cannons were brought into the city from ships anchored in the harbor and placed along likely attack routes. The city also had plenty of defensive materiel: 50 tonnes (110,000 lb) of lead, 4,000 muskets, and a staggering 810 kilometres (500 mi) of slow match.

The Swedish siege army consisted of 11 brigades and 16 squadrons with 4,000 infantrymen, 2,000 cavalrymen and 50 cannons. The Swedes took the outer defensive parameter, built in 1625 by Christian IV, but which had fallen into disrepair. It was hastily repaired and artillery was brought to bear on the city.

The Danes would not let the Swedish attack unmolested, and several counter-attacks against the siege army was made. On August 23, 1658 almost three thousand students, sailors and solders staged a surprise attack through a hidden passage in the wall, destroying fortifications under construction and and captured three cannons.

Over 200 heated shot a day were hurled into the city, and several large howitzers were brought to bear on the Danish capital, including 300-pounder "Eric Hansson" who earlier had been used in the siege on Krakow. But the citizens of Copenhagen proved to be resilient, enduring the constant barrage.

Kronborg captured

Colonel Poul Beenfeldt, Danish commander of Kronborg.

It was expected that the Dutch would intervene in the conflict, and from a Swedish point of view it was essential to establish naval supremacy in Oresund to keep the Dutch out. Kronborg Castle sits near the narrowest part of Oresund, the sound is only four kilometres wide, hence giving the castle a supreme strategic importance. Frederick III had appointed the colonel Poul Beenfeldt as the commander of the castle, and he had been ordered to defend it at all costs. And should he fail in that, Kronborg was to be blown up to prevent the Swedes from using it.

On August 16 the Swedes arrived at Helsingor and took shelter in the city and started bombarding the castle with artillery. The Danes fired back, attempting to set the city on fire — destroying a dozen houses, but the fire did not consume the city. Danish artillery rained continually on the Swedish soldiers. However, the Swedish force still managed to advance, taking the outer line of defenses. The mood in the castle darkened, and Beenfeldt's courage wavered. The Swedish commander, Karl Gustav Wrangel, resorted to subterfuge and spread the rumor that Copenhagen had fallen and the Swedish soldiers started a false celebration. Discouraged and demoralized, the Danes capitulated. The fall of Kronborg was a blow for the Danish, 77 captured cannons were quickly put to use in the siege and with the castle in Swedish hands, it was hoped the Dutch would have a difficult time to come to aid.

Battle of the Sound

The Battle of the Sound, October 29, 1658. Drawing by Willem van der Velde (the elder)

Main article: Battle of the Sound

In a 1649 treaty the Dutch had pledged to defend Denmark against unprovoked aggression, which the Dutch honored by sending a 45-ship relief fleet — despite Swedish hopes that they would not enter the conflict. On October 7, 1658 the Dutch fleet set sail from Vlie. Two weeks later, on October 22 it anchored northwest of Helsingør, unable to proceed for 6 days due to wind conditions. Wrangel suggested the Swedes should attack, but Charles X Gustaf still wanted to avoid provoking the Dutch.

On October 29 at eight in the morning, a shot was heard from the Dutch flag ship. It was the signal to advance and to smash the Swedish line. The Dutch fleet was divided into three squadrons. Vice admiral Witte de With on the 54-gun ship Brederod and his 11-ship squadron led the charge, followed by admiral Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam on the 72-gun Eendracht with 13 ships in the squadron. The last squadron, led by Pieter Florizzon had 11 ships. In total, the Dutch fleet consisted of 45 ships with 1,838 cannons and 4,000 sailors. Following the warships, many transports with food and supplies as well as 28 regiments of experienced soldiers followed. Standing against them were a Swedish navy consisting of 43 ships, with 1,605 cannons and 4,055 sailors. The Swedes also had great hopes that the coastal artillery of Kronborg would inflict great damage, and Charles personally fired the first sharp shot from Kronborg. However, it fell short: the Dutch had wisely chosen to sail closer to the Swedish side, where there were fewer guns. Sweden had more guns, but the Dutch had the advantage of the wind. In the narrow straits of Oresund, more than a hundred warships now battled.

The engagement was confusing for both sides, and the view was soon obscured by gunpowder smoke. Many ships on both sides were badly damaged, and around 2,000 men killed or wounded. Towards the end, a squadron of Danish ships met up with Dutch and escorted them into the harbor of Copenhagen. The Swedish fleet had failed; much-needed reinforcements and supplies had reached the beleaguered Danish town. The combined Danish and Dutch fleet now had control of the seas, forcing the Swedish fleet to harbor in Landskrona.

Attack on Copenhagen

Map of Copenhagen.

Main article: The assault on Copenhagen

After six months of siege the Dutch had now opened the sea lanes. Charles now faced a dilemma: if he tried to sue for peace, the conditions would have been worse than the previous peace. The other option was an all-out attack on Copenhagen, hoping that conquering the city would end the war. The number of Swedish attackers are somewhat uncertain, but was roughly 8,000 men, comprised of 4,500 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, 1,000 sailors and a few hundred gunners. The Swedish King planned the attack meticulously, but neglected to keep adequate secrecy; the Danes were soon fully aware of the details of the Swedish attack plan. The Danes had 6,000 trained warriors, but 5,000 men and women from the city had also taken up weapons, bringing the number of defenders to 11,000.

The Swedish army had performed diversionary attacks on the outskirts of the city two nights in a row in order to tire the defenders. At midnight on February 11, 1659, the main attack commenced. The main spearhead of the Swedish forces attacked from south of St. Jørgens lake with the King himself in overall command.

A hundred cannons on Slotsholmen was brought to bear on the Swedish attackers with quick and well-aimed fire. The two attacking divisions advanced nevertheless, led by general-major Fabian von Fersen and general-major Johan von Esssen respectively. They reached the outer palisades on the ice, which were quickly breached but the Swedes were immediately stopped by holes in the ice the Danes had cut. The bridges they had brought weren't long enough and the Swedes were subject to heavy fire with no cover. Longer bridges were brought, and the attack continued towards the city walls. The battle was ferocious, with the attackers desperately trying to establish a bridgehead on the walls. But in the end, the defenders were successful and the Swedes were thrown back.

The Danish defenders fire at the attackers.

The northern attack force moved south towards Østerport where the fortification Kastellet laid. The Swedes Template:Todo-inline

At around 6 in the morning, Charles X of Sweden knew that all attacks had failed. He ordered a retreat to the outskirts of the city, back to square one.

The victory was important for the Danes. Not only had their arch-enemy been defeated, out of the smoldering city came a both stronger bourgeoisie with renewed confidence and more privileges and an improved position for the Danish king. In many ways, it was a renewed Denmark which emerged on February 12, 1659.

The Allies invade Funen

When the Swedish invaded Zealand in August 1658, Holland wasn't the only foreign power that took notice. In fact, a union between Brandenburg, Poland and Austria had already started to put together a relief army in December 1657, but preparations of this polyglot force took so long that the Swedish king already signed the peace treaty of Roskilde before the army was ready to march. However, the preparations weren't in vain—with the 1658 invasion the allies were in an excellent position to quickly put together a force and march towards Denmark.

Thanks to the earlier preparations, a large force of 14 500 Brandenbrugers, 10 600 Austrians led by the Italian field marshal Raimondo Montecuccoli and 4 500 Poles led by Stefan Czarniecki had crossed Oder on September 14, 1658. Swedish possessions in central Europe all along the Baltic cost were under attack, and the Austrians at least were enthusiastic in Pomerania and moving towards Jutland. However, the anti-Swedish coalition had internal conflicts. Polish opinion of Austria was in rapid decline, and their enthusiasm in the campaign was distinctly luke-warm.

Nevertheless, the allies had managed to take possession over Jutland. The Swedish commander Philip of Sulzbach was forced into a long series of retreats. On May 19, 1659, the Swedes abandoned their last positions at Fredriksodde and took up positions at Funen. Less than two weeks later, on May 31, 1659 the first assault on Funen began with 9,000 soldiers. Against them were 4,000 Swedes, but they were battlehardened veterans. The first attempt was repelled. On June 26, a second attempt was made: the allies landed after heavy fire had pounded what was thought to be the Swedish positions. However, they had pulled back and returned unscathed with heavy fire of their own. The invaders were again thrown back. Before a third attempt could be made, a Swedish naval squadron under Owen Cox managed to sink a large number of the invading fleet at Ebeltoft, and also taking 1,000 prisoners. In the end the Allies had not managed to invade Funen, and a decision was taken to instead go back and attack Swedish Pomerania.

Meanwhile, other European powers had come to the decision that it was not in their interest that any one power should dominate the Baltic sea. After long negotiations, known as the first Concert of the Hague, England sent a large fleet of 43 ships with more than 2,000 cannons, which did not directly participate but nevertheless sent a clear message to the Dutch fleet patrolling the Danish waters. England worked hard to broker peace, helped by France which also declared its willingness to help the Swedes unless the Danish would agree to negotiate.

Battle of Nyborg

Forces lined up prior to the battle 1) Swedish forces 2) Allied forces led by Eberstein and 3) Danish forces led by Schack. 4) Cavalry-strike by Ahlefeldt.

On November 11 Hans Shack and his forces boarded Dutch transports to take them to the eastern side of Funen. After some false starts, due to weather and Swedish forces, he managed to land near Kerteminde. General-Major Ernst Albrecht von Eberstein was in charge of the Allied forces that had been left on Jutland, and was also moving towards Funen; landfall was made two days later without any Swedish resistance. Both Eberstein and Schack marched towards Odense, meeting up on November 12. So far, the invasion of Funen was going smoothly for the combined Danish and Allied forces.

Sulzbach made a tactical error in not attacking either Schack or Eberstein before they could join up; even though his generals urged him to do so. Instead, he chose to withdraw to Nyborg. The Swedish King was not happy, he immediately sent Gustaf Otto Stenbock to relieve Sulzback of command. When Stenbock arrived he found the city's defenses wanting and sent a note to Charles X of Sweden that he could not guarantee that he would hold the city.

Instead of immediately taking advantage of the situation, Eberstein and Shack started quarelling; each refusing to let the other one lead the combined forces. The impasse was finally resolved by Ebestein and Shack agreeing to command the forces every other day.

The Swedish commanders had decided they must try to make a stand. A few kilometers west of Nyborg the Swedish forces of about 5,500 men stood in battle formation in the way of the advancing forces. The Swedes had a good position, with a small lake on the left flank and a forrest on the right, providing good cover for a retreat to Nyborg should one be necessary. Opposing them were 9,000 men, with Eberstein being in command for the day. They divided into two lines, each commanded by one of the alternating commanders. Thrice Eberstein attacked; only to be rebuffed by intensive Swedish fire supported by cavalry attacks. Eberstein himself was almost captured, only narrowly escaping.

But even then, Eberstein refused to ask Schack for assistance in the battle. Colonel Ditlev Ahlefeldt of the allied forces would not to let pride and vanity be the downfall of the attack and pleaded with Schack to attack. Shack brandished his rapier and mounted a forceful attack into the Swedish left flank. A bloody engagement ensued; but the Swedish cavalry was no match for the rested Danish forces—they fled towards Nyborg leaving the infantry defenseless. The Polish riders showed no pardon, cutting down the Swedish infantry almost to a man.

The Swedes had fought bravely. Salzback had personally dispatched 8 men. But their losses were extremely heavy, over 2,000 men had been killed or almost half the force. The Allied had lost 1,900 men. The defenses of Nyborg was in no condition to withstand a siege. There was nothing for the Swedish to do but to surrender, forcing 5,000 men into captivity. Sweden had suffered a devastating defeat.

The Latvian city of Mitau (Jelgava) fell to Polubinski in January 1660 and the allies were preparing an invasion of Zeeland and the outlook was not good for the Swedes. Fortunately, the war would not last much longer.

Insurgencies

The Swedes were not popular in the regions that Sweden had gained at the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. With the new war going badly, insurgents saw their chance to rise up against the unpopular rule.

Trondheim

The Trøndelag province in which Trondheim is the largest city sits into the middle of Norway. After the peace treaty, Norway became divided into two parts, with no connection between the northern and southern part. The governor, Claes Stiernsköld had 120 cavalry and 600 infantrymen under his command and one Swedish ship, Gotland, lay in harbor. Already on September 28, 1658 a small Danish force of three navy ships and several smaller boats landed forces close to Trondheim. Two other ships attacked Gotland, thought no significant damage was inflicted on the ships of either side.

A small Swedish reinforcement arrived to Trondheim; though both food and ammunition was in short supply. On October 4, the Danish forces arrived to the city reinforced by 1,000 Norwegian peasants from the surrounding villages who had taken up arms. When hearing that aid was near, the population of the city revolted; but the uprising within Trondheim was quickly squashed. Charles X of Sweden ordered Lieutenant Colonel Erik Drakenberg to put together a force in Jämtland and march towards Trondheim but the relief was stopped by Norwegian peasants that had taken to the hills and defended the mountain passages.

The Danish upped the pressure on Trondheim and red-hot shot rained down on the city daily, and despite Stiernsköld swearing to "boil soup on his leather pants before surrendering" he was nevertheless forced into leaving the city on December 11. According to the terms of the surrender, Stiernsköld and his men were allowed to leave under military honors, with 2,500 men presenting arms.

Bornholm

On April 29, 1658 Bornholm was presented with its new governor: Coloniel Printzensköld, who arrived with his family and 130 soldiers. Printzensköld soon enacted a number of unpopular taxes and many of the islands young men were conscripted. In addition, Plague had hit the island hard, killing half the population of 10,000. The island was seething with barely contained anger and resentment, and after the Swedish invasion of Denmark Frederick III sent letters to leading men in the community urging them to revolt. They wasted no time, and Printzensköld was shot dead during an inspection tour on December 8, 1659. The remaining Swedes, mostly Scanians who had little reason to be loyal to the Swedish King, surrendered. The Swedish navy was otherwise occupied and could offer no relief. Bornholm was again controlled by Danes.

Scania

One of Frederick III's bodyguards, Statius, travelled to Scania to organize the peasants into Snapphane units and instigate anti-Swedish sentiment. In Malmö, a cabal of rich bourgeoisie, led by Bartholomaeus Mikkelsen, planned a revolt. The conspiracy tried to recruit one of Malmös two mayors, Efvert Wiltfang, but he would not commit to a rising even though he said he would support Frederick III. At the end of December, the Danes embarked on a foray into Scania but were foiled by bad weather and poor navigation. Meanwhile, the Swedish authorities had became aware of the plot and the main leaders were arrested, among them Mikkelsen and Wildfang. The conspirators were sentenced to death. On December 22, 1659 Mikkelsen, and two others were beheaded; but in an attempt to placate the Scanian people the execution of Wiltfang and 10 others was stayed. The coup had been averted, but rebels and insurgents continued to operate in the country side.

Peace

Main article: Treaty of Copenhagen

Sweden lost the areas in green to Denmark in the 1660 peace treaty.

Charles X of Sweden fell ill in the beginning of 1660 and died on the night of February 13, 1660 of pneumonia. With the death of the Swedish King, one of the major obstacles to peace was out of the way and in April the Treaty of Oliva was signed with the Allies (Poland, Austria and Brandenburg). However, the Danish were not keen on peace after their recent successes and the weakness of the Swedish. After some further concessions, the Dutch released the blockade on Landskrona, allowing the Swedish fleet out in the Øresund strait which in turn blockaded Kopenhagen. Danish diplomacy soon got the Dutch back on their side again, and real war between Sweden and Holland looked imminent. The French and English intervened for the Swedish and the situation was again teetering on the edge of a major conflict.

The Danish statesman Hannibal Sehested was instructed by Frederick III to negotiate with the Swedes, and the resulting peace treaty should largely be credited to him. Without any direct involvement by foreign powers, the Danes and Swedes managed to negotiate the Treaty of Copenhagen within weeks, much to the surprise of the involved parties. One area of contention was the islands of Hven and Bornholm, the latter having gotten the Danish King's personal word of protection against the Swedes. In the end, Bornholm remained under Danish control, in exchange for a number of estates in the south of present-day Sweden. The treaty of 1660 established political borders of Denmark, Sweden and Norway that have lasted to the present.

In the Treaty of Roskilde two years earlier, Denmark had been forced to yield the provinces of Scania, Halland, Blekinge and the island of Bornholm and the Norwegian province Trøndelag. The Treaty of Copenhagen reaffirmed the Swedish rule over Scania, Halland and Blekinge, while Bornholm and Trøndelag were returned to Danish rule. It was a significant victory for Denmark, but it did not result in a reversal of the costly earlier peace.

A dramatic coup had won the previous war for Charles, when his attempt to do the same had fallen short with his failure to capture Copenhagen he proved unable to militarily suppress the combined forces of the his foes. Sweden had come close to dominating the Baltic sea, which was not in the interest of strong international forces. England, France and to a lesser extent the Dutch all favored a return to the status quo of the Roskilde peace. In Denmark, the war resulted in sweeping social changes. Frederik III browbeat the noble families which had long held power in Denmark into accepting a heredity royal rule and vast royal powers for the King to rule as he saw fit.

References

• Englund, Peter (2000). Den oövervinnerlige. Stockholm: Atlantis. ISBN 91-7486-999-x. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Frost, Robert I. (2000). The Northern Wars (1558-1721). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-06429-4.
• Henrikson, Alf (1963). Svensk Historia. Albert Bonniers Förlag. ISBN 91-0-010551-1.
• Isacson, Claes-Göran (2002). Karl X Gustavs krig. Lund: Historiska Media. ISBN 91-85057-25-8.
• Sundberg, Ulf (1998). "Karl X Gustavs andra danska krig 1658-1660". Svenskt Militärhistoriskt Bibliotek. Retrieved 2007-11-29.

Further reading

• Ulf Sundberg: Svenska krig 1521-1814, Stockholm 1998.
• Björlin, Gustaf: Sveriges krigshistoria i bilder, vol. 2, Stockholm 1917.
• Holm, Torsten: Översikt över Sveriges krig under 1600-talets senare hälft, Stockholm 1927.
• Kjærulff Hellesen, Jette; Tuxen, Ole: Historisk atlas. Danmark, Köpenhamn 1988.
• Stade, Arne (red.): Carl X Gustaf och Danmark, Kristianstad 1965.
• Svenska flottans historia, vol. 1, Malmö 1942.
• Weibull, Martin; Höjer, Magnus: Sveriges storhetstid, från år 1611 till år 1718, Stockholm 1881.

Category:Wars involving Denmark Category:Wars involving Sweden Category:1660s Category:17th century conflicts