Single reed instrument
Single reed instruments belong to the group of woodwind instruments . Its sound is produced by a single striking tongue made of reed or pile reed or another material (reed / leaf) is stimulated to vibrate by a stream of air. The pitch is determined by the length of the sound tube connected to the reed or can be varied by covering or opening finger holes. In the case of instruments whose reeds are played with lip contact, the pitch can also be influenced by different sections of the reed or by changing the pressure on the reed.
In addition to the reed and sound tube, single-reed instruments can be extended to include horns or wind capsules . Often double instruments come across with different or similar sound tubes.
The characteristic sound of single reed instruments is often penetrating and intense, comparable to that of double reed instruments , but less nasal. With a few instruments (clarinet, chalumeau) a rather soft sound is achieved.
The single- reed instruments and the double-reed instruments form the genus of reed instruments (also called shawms ). Together with the organ's lingual pipes , they form the category of reed instruments . Sound pipes with single reeds are often used as melody or drone pipes in bagpipes .
Basics
terminology
Single reed instruments are common all over the world. The terminology is varied and often fluctuating. On the one hand, there are very different regional names for the same instruments. On the other hand, the names of single-reed instruments are often not clearly delimited from other wind instruments (especially from double reed instruments or bagpipes).
In terms of instruments, the single-leaf instruments are often referred to as "clarinets" or "clarinet instruments" (after the most famous instrument of this group , along with the saxophone ). The clarinet , however, represents a special, relatively recent development and in some respects (key mechanism, multiple overblowing, full chromatics, timbre) cannot be considered typical of the instrument family.
The following terms are therefore also used for traditional single-reed instruments: folk clarinets, simple or primitive or traditional clarinets, idioglotte clarinets, shepherd clarinets, natural clarinets, pipe pipes or horn pipes (after English reedpipe / hornpipe). Scientifically, the type is called monoglottophone (monoglotter).
Reed
As the name suggests, the reeds are mostly made from reeds , stake or bamboo cane . There are also leaves made from straws, quills, wood, tree bark or plastic. If the reed is created through an incision in the tube and remains firmly connected to it on one side, one speaks of idioglottic tubes. The upper end swings freely through a downward cut (anaglottes tube). The lower end swings freely through an upward cut (cataglottes tube).
If the vibrating tongue is attached to a hollow body with a flattened opening in such a way that it can be removed, one speaks of heteroglottic tubes. If the hollow body, which forms the counterpart to the reed, is made beak-shaped with larger pipe diameters, a mouthpiece is created .
Style of play
The instruments with idioglottem reed have almost no dynamic range , small changes in blowing pressure lead to changes in pitch and are therefore used for intonation . Large changes in the blowing pressure lead to over- inflation of the instrument and are used accordingly.
Instruments with a heteroglottic tube (see below) usually have wider blades and larger tube diameters or mouthpieces. This gives these instruments a fairly large dynamic range.
The idioglotten single reed instruments from the Mediterranean and Asia are often played with circular breathing . Wind capsules or hollow bodies as air reservoirs create a transition to the bagpipe. Some instruments are played separately or combined with a bagpipe (see below Diple , Tsambouna , also Magruna ).
Typology
The following list only includes instruments from the Mediterranean and Europe. All of the instruments mentioned have finger holes. There are also simple signal instruments without finger holes ( Corru 'e boe , Sardinia; Turulla , Spain).
Instruments with firmly attached blades (idioglott)
Most of the single-reed instruments have an idioglottic tube. According to the components of the instruments, the following types can be distinguished:
- One-piece instruments (integrated)
The simplest instruments are created by making an incision in a pipe or straw. Examples of the integrated type: Pito de centeno , (rye stalk, Castile), Pai (oat stalk, Romania), Soropilli (straw, Finland) and the Mantoura (also Mandoura, Mpantoura, Thiambioli, Crete) and the Bena semplice (Sardinia) Pipe. The Mock Trumpet (idioglottes Rohrchalumeau, England, turn of the 17th to the 18th century) was covered in leather .
- Instruments with a simple sound tube
In the case of non-integrated instruments, an isoglottic reed is attached to a sound pipe with a larger diameter made of different materials (pipe, wood).
The simplest form (reed with reed sound tube) can be found in the following instruments: Sipsi , (Turkey), Diplica , (Croatia, Baranja), Xirimieta mallorquina , (Xeremeieta / Reclam de Xeremies, Mallorca, Balearic Islands - also as a double instrument such as Midschwiz, see below ), Roopill (Estonia) and Bâzoi , (Romania).
The Bena cun corru has a sound tube with three finger holes made of bamboo and a horn made of horn. The Bena cun zucca has a pumpkin funnel.
The Finnish Lävikko has a wooden pipe and a horn made of birch bark. In the case of the Turuta (Spain, Extremadura), the pipe and bell are made from one piece of wood. In the case of the Cialamedda (Corsica, South Corsica: Cialamella / cialambella), a sound tube is drilled into a square block of wood and a wooden horn is attached.
The puwi-puwi on Java consists of a conical wooden tube and a rattan mouthpiece with an anaglotte reed that the player puts in his mouth.
Often we encounter horns made of horn, which can also be eponymous. English Hornpipe and Gaelic Pibgorn are called Hornpfeife, Albogue and Alboka (Iberian Peninsula) go in Arabic. al-boq horn back.
Horn pipes are the Gaita gastore (Gaita del Gastor, Spain, Cádiz), the Caramera (Caremère / Caremera, France, Gascogne), the Russian Schaljka (Zhaleika / Jaleika) and the Ukrainian Rischok (Rizhok, Rih). In the case of Zhaleika and Rischok, a wooden (or plastic) wind capsule can be placed over the reed, as is always the case with Gajdica (Slovakia). The Gaita serrana (Spain, Madrid) and the Pibgorn (Great Britain, Wales) have a wind capsule made of horn .
In the Romanian Talvul , a bottle gourd serves as a wind capsule.
The Chifla de Campoo (Spain, locality Campoo, Cantabria) has a special shape : inside a sound tube with a smaller funnel at the top and a larger funnel at the lower end, a reed held by the lips is blown.
- Instruments with multiple sound tubes
Traditional single-reed instruments often have double (also triple) sound tubes. In the literature, these instruments are also referred to as "double clarinets".
As clarinetto doppio (Italy, Sicily), two unconnected instruments of different lengths are played simultaneously (non-integrated reeds, melody pipes made of reeds or bamboo - also individually). The two tubes diverge when playing (V-shape).
In the Egyptian Arghul two pipes of different sizes are connected in parallel, one of which is a melody pipe and a drone pipe (different sizes, drapes 80–240 cm). A shorter instrument in which the melody and drone reeds are roughly the same length is called the zummara in Egypt. The Sardinian Benas doppie are very similar , in which a melody tube and a drone tube are also tied together.
An instrument in which two melody tubes of equal length are connected with the same number of finger holes is called Midschwiz in Egypt, Lebanon and Palestine , Zummar / Zummara (also Mindjara) in the other Arab countries, and Zummare in Albania. In Turkey the corresponding instruments are called Çifte (also called Argun, Argul, Kargin, Zambir) and there are different versions (corresponding to Arghul or Midschwiz).
In Sonarel in the south of France (Languedoc), a melody tube and a drone tube are firmly connected to one another by a bridge. In North Africa the double instrument with two identically tuned playing tubes usually has two horn funnels and is called Magruna there.
The Sardinian Launeddas combine three instrument tubes of different lengths. The drone tube can be tuned using changeable sections and closable holes and is connected to the second longest tube, which has finger holes, by a bridge. The main melody pipe is not connected to the other two.
A Croatian instrument in which two straight divergent playing tubes (wood) of equal length are connected by a wooden wind capsule is called ursle (Istria). The Diple (Dalmatia) also comes from Croatia , in which two parallel sound tubes are drilled into a piece of wood. Usually they have six (melody tube) or two finger holes (drone tube). The reeds are picked up by a wind capsule. This can serve as a fastening piece for the sack of a bagpipe (also a double) that has no other pipe. The Stock and Horn , which died out in England in the 18th century , had a wooden wind cap, a wooden body with double holes and a horn funnel.
In the Cretan Tsambouna (also Askomantoura), the wind capsule, bell and a bridge on which all parts are attached are made of wood. Inside are the two sound-generating pipes with five holes each. The tsambouna is mainly used as a play tube for bagpipes, but can also be used separately.
At the Alboka (Spain, Basque Country), a horn wind capsule covers two pipes of equal length with different grip holes. The instrument also has a horn made of horn. All parts of the instrument are held by a semicircular wooden handle on the underside.
At the Pungi in India, a calabash serves as a common wind capsule for a melody and drone tube connected in parallel. Also in the Caramuse (France, Corsica) a bottle gourd serves as a common wind capsule for a melody pipe and a drone pipe (is also made as a bagpipe).
Instruments with incompletely separable leaf (partially heteroglott)
The instruments Drček from Slovakia and Kärjenoukka from western Finland were a specialty. A hazelnut, birch or willow branch is split lengthways and hollowed out as a melody tube. The top of the mouthpiece is removed in the shape of a beak until only a millimeter-thin sheet remains, which is firmly attached to the upper half. The counterpart on the underside is hollowed out. Both halves are wrapped with bark and glued together. The instruments died out in the 20th century. In Slovakia today, the Drček is a heteroglottic single- reed instrument with a conical bore, possibly with a horn made of horn.
Instruments with separable blades (heteroglott)
- Instruments with a cylindrical bore
The Totarota from southern France consists of a bamboo tube with a tied leaf, similar to the Xaphoon that was "invented" in the 1970s . The chalumeau with a recorder-like body was widespread in Central Europe in the 18th century and was often provided with two keys to expand the range upwards. Comparable is the Meråker clarinet , a shepherd's clarinet from Norway (Meråker).
The Mänkeri from (West) Finland has a pear-shaped wooden funnel or a bell made of birch bark. The Armenian instrument pku is built for different tunings in different sizes and has a horn funnel.
The orchestral clarinet also belongs to the type of instruments with cylindrical bore and heteroglottem reeds . The Treujenn gaol (Dreujenn gaol) from Brittany (France) represents a clarinet shape from the early 19th century (mostly 13 keys, also less) and has a wooden funnel.
- Instruments with a conical bore
The Liru from Finland (Karelia) has a conical bore that widens into a bell and can be overblown. The instrument is covered with birch bark. The Birbynė from Lithuania is made of maple or pear wood and has a slightly conical bore, a horn funnel and a horn or ebony mouthpiece. Since the middle of the 20th century, it has been built as a fully chromatic instrument with an overblown key and ten finger holes (blown into the small decimal). The Tárogató is a Hungarian development of the late 19th century, has a conically drilled wooden body and a developed key mechanism comparable to the modern clarinet.
The saxophone belonging here usually has a brass sound tube.
The Norwegian Tungehorn is made from a goat's or ram's horn, the tip of which has an opening on which a reed made of birch wood is attached. Finger holes are burned or drilled into the horn. The Lithuanian ožragis is made from billy goat horn in a similar way .
history
Preliminary remark
The historical evidence for the single reed instruments extends over a period of more than four millennia and many different regions. There are often large temporal and geographical gaps between the individual types. The exact course of the geographical spread and mutual influence is not documented. In addition, the testimonies usually represent the tastes of the respective ruling class, while the instruments of popular culture are often not documented.
No “history of single-reed instruments” should be constructed that assumes a continuous development from a simple to a more complex instrument. Even the oldest evidence shows that the instruments are doubled or made up of several parts. Conversely, simple types often continue to exist alongside the more complex ones to this day. This diversity and individual independence are to be appreciated. This results in a representation of the "single-leaf instruments in history".
Oldest testimonies
- Egypt
From the 4th Dynasty (2639–2504 BC) a statue with a double instrument was found in the necropolis of Giza . Since the fifth dynasty (2504-2347 v. Chr.) Found this Memet called reed instrument to pictorial representations. Archaeologically, specimens from the Middle Kingdom have been preserved (approx. 2010 BC to 1793 BC). Some reed specimens from the late period (664–332 BC) and from the Hellenistic-Roman period (4th century BC to 4th century AD) are very well preserved. These instruments seem to have been played exclusively with single reeds. They had finger holes and the double sound tubes were held parallel. They are to be regarded as the direct forerunners of the instruments that are still widespread in the Arab cultural area today.
- Mesopotamia
The mouthpieces of the archaeologically preserved melody tubes from Mesopotamia have not been preserved. In this respect, they cannot be reliably identified as reed instruments.
- Cycladic culture
From the third millennium BC A Cycladic sculpture has survived, which holds a wind instrument with two symmetrical conical chimes. Despite the highly schematic representation, the instrument can be recognized as a pre-form of the later double auros.
- Minoan time
On a sarcophagus from Hagia Triada , an archaeological site on Crete ( Minoan period , middle of the 2nd millennium BC), there is a well-preserved image of a double aaul, one of which has a play tube carrying a bell. The two pipes are kept parallel and almost reach the arm's length of the player.
- Sardinia
A phallic bronze statuette found in Sardinia documents a pre-form of the Launeddas or Benas that have survived there to this day. The on 1000 BC A figure 8 cm high, dated BC, shows a player holding three cylindrical game tubes of equal length in his mouth, which are gripped at the lower end with outstretched arms.
Greek aulos
Since around 700 BC Copies of the Greek aulos, representations and literary evidence have survived. Only double instruments are documented that were held in a V-like manner while playing. They were made of bones, reeds or wood. Both cylindrical and conical shapes meet. Between the play tube ( bombyx ) and the mouthpiece ( zeugos ) sat two egg or trapezoidal thickened sections, the holmos and the hypholmion . The auloi were mostly around 50 cm long, but there are also shorter or longer forms.
Research reckons that both single reeds and double reeds were used. It is not clear which form was more common.
The play tubes each had three finger holes to which a fourth thumb hole could be added. From the Hellenistic period, instruments with significantly more boreholes have been preserved. T. are to be interpreted as sound holes, z. Some could be closed or opened with the help of wax to change the range.
The figures show the position of the fingers of the right and left hands of the auletes mostly parallel, i.e. H. the two pipes played in unison or with beat or at a fixed interval. A mouth bandage ( Phorbeia ) could be used, which facilitated circular breathing. Auloi were probably not overblown, as no coherent scale can be generated when overblowing into the duodecime.
Hallstatt period
A representation of a double horn whistle was found in Százhalombatta (Hungary) . A figurine from the context of the eastern Hallstatt district (6th century BC) depicts a person playing two horn pipes in a V position. The left tube of this "Hallstatt Aulos" is about a quarter longer than the right one. The right pipe is at least arm's length. The play tubes are inserted into the hollow curve of the horns, about a third of the horn length in front of the horn tip.
Etruscan subulo
The Etruscans had a strong culture of wind instruments. The Etruscan subulo is a doubled reed instrument that was either adopted by the Greeks or was already common in central Italy. There is only indirect literary evidence (Greek and Latin), but informative accounts. A fresco in the Tomba Francesca Giustiniani clearly shows the (anaglottic) single reed leaves that are otherwise hidden in the oral cavity. In the case of the instrument from the Tomba dei Leopardi , the upper ends of the play tubes are set off in red. This is to be interpreted as the first evidence of a metal ring that strengthens the tube at the point where the holmos is pressed into it.
It cannot be determined with certainty whether the Etruscans had instruments with a simple sound tube and whether they used horn funnels as bells. What is certain, however, is that the Roman tibia was developed from the Subulo. In the Roman sacrificial service, the Etruscans originally played the tibia.
Roman tibia
The instrument was further developed in Roman times . The tibia is now also made from different types of wood, ivory and metal. The tubes can carry silver rotating rings with which finger holes can be opened or closed as required. Below the finger holes there can be several sound holes, which can be provided with removable tubular or funnel-shaped attachments that apparently influenced the timbre. In addition to these complex instruments, the simple ones persist.
A distinction was made between “right” and “left” tibia, the right one being longer and sounding deeper, the left one shorter or higher. The right one was the leading pipe, the left one the accompanying pipe. In addition to the interaction of the dissimilar tubes, that of two “identical” tubes, usually on the right, is also documented. The game is relatively seldom shown or described on just one pipe (Monaulos).
If the two tubes - with different lengths - have the same number of finger holes, it is called the Serran or Lydian tibia, with a different number of finger holes it is called the Phrygian . The Phrygian tibia carries a bell called elymos on a tube (usually the left one) , cf. above in Minoan time . The end of the pipe can also be bent upwards and drain into a small funnel. In addition to the above, there were numerous other types of instruments that are only known by name.
Use and sound in ancient times
Auloi were played in the context of the cult , especially the mystery cults , also in the theater and in sports fights, which also had cultic origins. They had a permanent place for funeral rites as well as for dancing and feasts. Male and female aulets are shown.
The tone is described in the older testimonies as sharp and penetrating, in later documents as "sweet". With the multitude of different instrument shapes , lengths and different possible mouthpieces (including double tubes), very different timbres are to be expected. The spectrum may have ranged from the sound of the Arghul (long, cylindrical reed , single reed) to instruments of the Zurna type (conical reed, double reed).
Some of the classical philosophers criticize the Aulosspiel for its intoxicating, ecstatic effect.
Medieval single-leaf instruments in Europe
Because of the close connection to the non-Christian cult, to dance and theater, as well as because of the trance-inducing sounds, the church fathers sharply criticized the game of the tibia. The musicians of the reed instruments sank as "minstrels" and "traveling people" to the lowest level of society.
There is no evidence from the early Middle Ages , but research assumes that the tradition of ancient wind instruments also persisted in the Christian-Occidental area. The first archaeological finds date from the 11th century. Since the age of the Crusades , influences from the Muslim musical culture, which had preserved the ancient legacy, can also be assumed.
Finds, book illuminations and representations in church interiors from the High Middle Ages reveal a wealth of single-leaf instruments that z. Some of them are very similar to folk instruments that have been preserved up to the present day. The sites suggest that the individual types of instruments were widely used in the Middle Ages.
In research, the instruments are used with the franz. Terms chalumeau (mas., Pl. Chalumeaux ) or muse (fem., Pl. Muses ). There is a close relationship to the game of platter and to the bagpipes (French cornemuse ) of the same period.
The following instruments or types of instruments have been documented: Simple sound tube with reed ( Charavines-Colletière , 11th century); Sound tube with reed and bell in horn or wood ( Pouzauges , 12th century; Achlum undated); Sound tube and reed with horn and wind cap made of horn ( Lund undated; Falster , 2nd half of the 11th century; Cantigas de Santa Maria around AD 1300, cf. the Welsh Pibgorn ); Round or square sound tube with reed and horn wind cap without bell ( Champvoux , 12th century; Sainte-Engrace , 12th century). Double instruments with connected parallel sound tubes (Psalter of Limoges , 12th century); mounted on a semicircular wooden arch (cantigas) or with two sound tubes drilled into a piece of wood (Charavines-Colletière, 11th century; Saint-Ours de Loches , 12th century); Double Instruments with bell horn ( Jugazan , 12th century) and single or double instruments with pumpkin windcap (Castle Carl Stone, Czech Republic, 14th century; Cantigas, with Bordunrohr). Triple instruments with three parallel sound tubes have also been identified (two drone tubes without finger holes, Cantigas; Codex of the Canterbury School 12th century.) All of these instruments have cylindrical sound tubes, the melody tubes have three to six finger holes.
17th and 18th centuries
In the late Middle Ages , double-reed instruments spread under Islamic influence in Europe . In the urban and courtly music of the Renaissance and early Baroque to Pomerania , dulcians , crumhorns etc. used. The single-leaf instruments survive as "shepherds' instruments" in rural areas and peripheral locations, e.g. T. until modern times.
- Chalumeau
The Chalumeau is only detectable towards the end of the 17th century . It is based on the simple medieval reed pipes and initially had an idioglottic reed (called a mock trumpet in England, this shape is still known towards the end of the 18th century). Since the beginning of the 18th century, two upper keys have usually been added to expand the range.
However, the transition to heteroglottic reeds is of particular importance. By connecting it to a wooden mouthpiece , the reed could be made wider, and the possibilities for lip-directed play were expanded. In the first half of the 18th century, the chalumeau was used in court music.
- clarinet
The clarinet is only a little younger than the chalumeau. It was developed from the Chalumeau at the beginning of the 18th century. Johann Christoph Denner (1655–1707), to whom the invention of the clarinet is usually attributed, also improved the chalumeau according to a biographical statement from 1730. The main differences to the Chalumeau are an overblown key with a metal sleeve and the wooden bell. For the further history of clarinets see the article Clarinet .
19th and 20th centuries
saxophone
In 1840 the Belgian Adolphe Sax developed an instrument with a mouthpiece similar to the clarinet, but with a conical metal sound tube. The instrument, patented in 1846, was intended from the outset for different vocal ranges. Corresponding wooden instruments are the Tárogató , invented by Vencel József Schunda in 1890 , the Octavin developed by Oskar Adler and Hermann Jordan around 1893 , and the Heckelfon clarinet invented by Wilhelm Hermann Heckel in 1907 . While the Tárogató is still played in Hungary and Romania to this day, the Octavin and the Heckelfon clarinet could not establish themselves.
Displacement and revival of traditional instruments The spread of "modern" instruments in the area of local musical traditions led to a decline in traditional folk instruments, so that around the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries they were often only played by individual players in rural peripheral areas .
Where the traditional single-leaf instruments were consciously maintained or revived, they have become symbols of regional awareness (Basque Country, Brittany, Sardinia, Wales, Hungary, Lithuania). Some of the instruments have also been further developed (chromatic pear, combination of the conical body of the Bombarde with a saxophone mouthpiece in Brittany).
New "single reeds" in world music For the needs of world music , single-reed instruments have been developed in the last few decades that have been deliberately simplified compared to the complex modern clarinets and saxophones. They are preferably made of wood or bamboo, are played with clarinet or saxophone reeds, largely dispense with key mechanisms and can carry horns made of wood, horn or pumpkin. The designation is sometimes imprecise; Many bamboo or wooden saxophones are “clarinets” (cylindrical bore, overblowing into the duodecime). The best known of the bamboo clarinets is the Xaphoon , which has been manufactured since 1976 . There are also real bamboo or wooden saxophones in a variety of shapes.
Web links
- Portal for reed and horn pipes (sound samples)
- Overview of historical forms muses. Retrieved September 4, 2016 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Clarinets III . In: Jürgen Elsner: Clarinet instruments in European folk music and outside of Europe . In: MGG , Sachteil, Volume 5, 195–214, here Col. 206
- ↑ List of names see schalmeien-welt: Countries and names of the instruments. Retrieved September 4, 2016 .
- ↑ Clarinets III . In: Jürgen Elsner: Clarinet instruments in European folk music and outside of Europe . In: MGG , Sachteil, Volume 5, 195–214, here Col. 195.
- ↑ Heinz Stefan Herzka: Schalmeien der Welt: Volksoboen and Volksklarinetten - Distribution and history of musical instruments with the magical sound . Basel 2003
- ↑ Heinz Becker: On the history of the development of ancient and medieval reed instruments . Hamburg 1966, p. 32 f.
- ^ Elsner, Clarinet III, Col. 197
- ^ Elsner, Clarinet III, Col. 196
- ↑ Clarinets III . In: Jürgen Elsner: Clarinet instruments in European folk music and outside of Europe . In: MGG , Sachteil, Volume 5, 195-214, here Col. 206-209
- ↑ Elsner, Klarinette III, Col. 210-212
- ↑ Conical bore not a special case, cf. Elsner, Clarinet III, Sp. 199
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 155 f.
- ↑ Elsner, Klarinetten I. - Preliminary remark, in: MGG, Sachteil, Bd. 5, 176 f.
- ↑ Elsner, Clarinets I, Col. 178.
- ↑ Helmut Brand, Ancient Greek Music
- ↑ Helmut Brand, Ancient Greek Music
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 111.
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 63
- ↑ Boetticher, Aulos, Col. 1040
- ↑ Take simple reed as a more common form: Wolfgang Boetticher: Aulos . In: MGG , Sachteil, Volume 1, Sp. 1039-1042 and Becker: Entwicklungsgeschichte , pp. 51-80.
- ↑ Becker, History of Development pp. 82, 98; Boetticher, Aulos Sp. 1040.
- ↑ Wolfgang Boetticher: Aulos . In: MGG , Sachteil, Volume 1, Col. 1041; Becker: History of Development , pp. 116–119.
- ↑ Bronze statuette from Százhalombatta. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on September 13, 2016 ; accessed on September 4, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ A sketch of the bronze statuette from Százhalombatta: Os Instrumentos Musicais na Tradición Galega »Gaita (Vilariño de Conso). Retrieved September 4, 2016 .
- ^ Hallstatt-Aulos (Albin Paulus 2003). (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on September 13, 2016 ; accessed on September 4, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Becker, History of Development, p. 59.
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 134.
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 132.
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 135.
- ↑ Wille, Günther, Musica Romana: The importance of music in the life of the Romans, 1967, p. 172 f. to the online view
- ↑ Boetticher, Aulos, Col. 1042.
- ↑ Becker: Development History, pp. 135-143.
- ↑ Wille, Musica, 171 f.
- ↑ Wille, Musica, p. 174.
- ↑ Servius quote from Becker: Development History , p. 146.
- ↑ Becker: History of Development , Wille, Musica, p. 171
- ^ Wille, Musica, p. 175.
- ^ Wille, Musica, p. 169; Boetticher, Aulos, Sp. 1042; Becker: History of Development , pp. 152–154.
- ↑ Becker: Development History, pp. 150–154
- ↑ Sound samples, reconstruction of a silver (silver-plated?) Instrument (presumably with a double reed) at the Austrian Academy of Sciences
- ↑ Boetticher, Aulos, Col. 1042.
- ↑ Becker: history of development . P. 154 f.
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 155 f.
- ↑ Cabiran, Pierre-Alexis et al. Dieu, Lionel: Avant et après les muses de Charavines - Hypothèses sur l'évolution des instruments à anches simples, p. 5 f. cabdieumuses. (PDF; 651 kB) Retrieved September 4, 2016 .
- ↑ Cabiran / Dieu, Muses, p. 2.
- ↑ Cabiran / Dieu, Muses, p. 7.
- ↑ For an overview with reconstructions of most instruments, see muses. Retrieved September 4, 2016 .
- ↑ For the instruments depicted in the Cantigas manuscripts , cf. the representation Medieval Instruments VIb, Winds ( memento of the original dated February 2, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Becker: Development History , p. 112
- ↑ Rice, Baroque Clarinet, p. 23. The first written evidence, an invoice for a “choir” of four instruments, dated 1687, Rice, Baroque Clarinet, p. 15.
- ^ Albert R. Rice: The Baroque Clarinet . Oxford 1992 [Early Music Series 13], pp. 11-14
- ↑ Joos Verschuere Reynvaan: Catechism of Musijk . Amsterdam 1787 (published 1795), plate 9
- ^ Colin Lawson: The Chalumeau in Eighteenth-Century Music . Ann Arbor MI 1981 [Studies in British Musicology 6] gives 20 years as the difference between the making of the two instruments, p. 172
- ^ Albert R. Rice: The Baroque Clarinet . Oxford 1992 [Early Music Series 13], p. 27.
- ↑ On the Jamaican musician Wilfred Fitzgerald Walker (called Sugar Belly), who played a bamboo saxophone as early as the 1950s, see Sugar Belly an his Bamboo Saxophone. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on August 21, 2016 ; accessed on September 4, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ; for the Sax andino see here
- ↑ Overview of various instrument makers here ( memento of the original from March 10, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
