History of the hospital

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The history of the hospital goes back to ancient times.

Asclepius sanctuary

The Asklepios sanctuary (Ασκληπιέιον Asklepieion, plural: Asklepieia) was founded in the 6th / 5th centuries. Century BC Visited by sick people in Greece in the hope that the God of healing will heal them in their sleep and give them advice in trauma oracles. After a donation ( fee ), the so-called healing sleep, the incubation , took place in it. Towards evening the sick lay down on the couches in the rooms provided for this purpose (Greek κλίνη kline ; hence the term clinic ). The temple servants (Greek ϑεραπευτής [therapeutés]) turned off the light and warned everyone to be quiet.

From today's perspective, the psychosomatic causes of many illnesses, the willingness and belief of those seeking help and the charisma of the place have very likely contributed to the interaction that ensured the success of temple medicine under the sign of Asclepius.

Valetudinarium

To provide health care for their legionaries, the Romans built one of the first hospitals in Aliso near Haltern around the year 14 (" Valetudinarium ", from Latin "valetudo" = "state of health", "illness"). Care facilities of this type have only been documented for antiquity since the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus . In addition to the military valetudinariums, there were also the civilian slave valetudinariums. Large landowners in Italy in particular had such facilities built in order to maintain the labor of their dearly paid slaves . Presumably there were also valetudinariums for the servants of the Roman imperial court, which served as a model for the private treatment rooms of some wealthy families. The valetudinariums in the western German region all have around 60 hospital rooms with two to three beds each. Bathing departments and abortions flush often belonged to it. In addition to camp doctors, the staff of the military hospitals also include pharmacists, clerks and inspectors. Slave doctors (“servi medici”) work in the civil valedutinariums of the rich Romans.

Xenodochion and Hospital

The Christian "hospital history" began with the establishment (around 370) of a large hospital (called Basileias) by Basil the Great near Caesarea in Cappadocia . It consisted of several departments, perhaps divided into individual houses, in which travelers, the poor, the elderly and the sick could find accommodation and care in accordance with the Christian commandment of mercy and charity. As the example mentioned of the first great Xenodochion (Greek xenodocheion , hostel, place of accommodation for strangers; from xenos = stranger, dechomai = to take in) shows, the Xenodochia (or Xenodochia) were mixed institutions, the strangers and poor accommodation and Provided care, and the institution mentioned was probably the first to have doctors trained in medical care available (see Hospital). Following the example of the early Christian Xenodochium , which was particularly widespread in the West Franconian region, numerous hospices or hospitals were created especially for pilgrims. They were built by the church or by monks along the pilgrimage routes and at pilgrims' destinations in the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.

In contrast to the modern hospital , the hospital was originally a shelter for various groups of weak, needy and homeless people, in which the poor, in particular, found refuge. The word hospital (lat. Hospes = guest), guest friend or stranger refers to the hospitium (lat. Hostel), from which the French names “hôpital” and “hôtel” are derived. The Hôtel-Dieu , as in Paris, refers to a bishop's hospital at cathedrals.

Leprosarium, military hospital and plague house

From around 583 onwards, a special form of hospital were the leprosoria (from the Greek leprosy = leprosy). Relatively isolated from the rest of society, the lepers should eke out their lives outside the monastery and city walls. The leper settlements - later also called infirmaries in Germany - originally consisted of wooden huts that were scattered around a chapel. In order to increase their livelihood, the sick had the right to beg, subject to certain conditions. They had to wear distinctive clothing and often horns, bells and rattles to avoid any further risk of infection. The Order of Lazarus, founded in Jerusalem around 1120 , dealt specifically with the care of lepers in hospitals . The plague houses were mostly built as a precaution against the sudden onset of the epidemic. While the leprosories were on the arterial roads near the city wall, often near the execution sites, the plague houses were more like prisons that were far from the cities. The first insane asylums and hospitals emerged from many plague houses - for example the Berlin Charité (1710).

Hotel Dieu, Paris, founded in 651

Monastery medicine

The monastic medicine , also known as monastic is called a monk or medicine, spread after the collapse of the Roman Empire from the 6th to the 12th century in the Latin West from. It is fundamentally different from Arabic and Byzantine medicine , which - in contrast to monastery medicine - systematically take up and continue the scientific tradition of antiquity . Monastic medicine began with the foundation of the monastery on Monte Cassino by Benedict of Nursia around 529. The Benedictine rule makes nursing the sick a Christian duty for the monks. The rule of the Chrodegang from the 8th century ( Regula canonicorum ) also provided for the care of the sick (through the infirmarius ) as well as the care for the needy (through the hospitalarius ). There were various types of hostels in the monasteries to accommodate the poor, the sick and strangers:

  • the house for the poor and pilgrims (Hospitale pauperum),
  • the guest house for rich pilgrims (hospitium),
  • and the infirmary for monks.

Monastery hospitals resembled z. T. houses of worship (nave with altar); In addition to caring for and caring for other people in need, nursing here follows the idea of ​​a church service rather than a medically justified aid program. The era of monastery medicine came to an end in the 12th century. In 1130 the Council of Clermont issued a ban on clergy practice. Compared to the West, where the hospital was largely operated separately from medicine for religious reasons, a medical hospital came relatively early in the Orient.

In the Persian Empire , the Academy of Gundischapur was founded as early as the Sassanid period , in which theoretical and practical training took place.

Islamic hospitals: Bimaristan and Şifa-hane

Portal of the Şifa-hane of the Divriği Mosque , Seljuk period , Turkey, 13th century

The founding of nursing homes is justified on religious grounds for both Muslims and Christians; Caring for the poor and needy is a duty. Legal alms (Arabic zakat ) is the third of the "Five Pillars of Islam".

Because of this, hospitals were mostly established as part of a religious foundation ( Waqf ). The statutes of such foundations often stipulate that nobody should and should not be turned away until health has been completely restored.

In the Islamic culture, hospitals ( Persian بیمارستان, DMG Bimaristan , 'hospital', Turkish Darüşşifa or Şifahane), which should initially isolate rather than treat people with infectious or psychiatric diseases. Later the bimaristans were organized like public hospitals and research institutes, and also trained students.

Bimaristans treated the sick regardless of origin or religion. Hospitals are usually found as part of a building complex around a mosque , to which a school ( madrasa ), library, pharmacy and kitchen were assigned. Men and women were treated in separate but equally equipped departments. Depending on the size of the Bimaristan, separate departments for mental, infectious and eye diseases, surgical and non-surgical cases could be set up.

Lay people take care of the sick

Doctor in a hospital ward, print from 1682

Near the southern French monastery of Cluny , men and women came together at the end of the 11th century who wanted to care for the sick for the sake of their souls. The origin lay in the monastic reform movement of the 10th century, starting from the monastery of the city of Cluny. As a result, caring for the sick within the monastery walls was seen as a disturbance of the monastery peace. Many European monasteries therefore left their hospitals to lay helpers, some of which gave rise to secular orders. The religious orders of knights, for example the Order of St. John and the Order of Germany , introduced a further bourgeoisisation of nursing and its transition to urban management as a result of the Crusades . In the 13th century the citizens and the city council in Lübeck founded the "Holy Spirit Hospital", which still exists today.

One of the oldest French hospitals, the Parisian Hôtel-Dieu , founded in 651, was the first hospital to have its own obstetrical department around 1630. The associated school of midwives enjoyed a great reputation.

From a hospital for the poor to a modern hospital

In the 17th century, French absolutism gave birth to a new type of hospital that was taken as a model in other countries. In Paris, the Hôpital général was founded for men and women with their own insane wards. The breeding and madhouse in Celle was one of the earliest German institutions (construction: 1710–1739). The state policy objective of central registration and discipline of the entire working population is reflected in the floor plan. The upstream penitentiary for a penal system, grouped around the penitentiary, and the adjoining madhouse , which was arranged around the madhouse. In the center was a church. The madmen were housed in Tollkoyen (cells) that looked like cages. These were each equipped with their own toilet; the excrement was discharged directly into a canal that flowed under the madhouse.

The first modern hospitals appeared in the 18th century. In 1710 the Charité was founded as a plague hospital, but not until 1727 as a “Lazareth and Hospital” for the state “ Collegium medico-chirurgicum ” founded in 1724 . In 1717, J. Juncker in Halle an der Saale used the hospital of the Francke Foundations for clinical teaching (Collegium clinicum Halense). An institution that was first referred to as a “hospital”, but still largely used as an asylum for seriously ill elderly people, was opened on July 9, 1770 in Nuremberg.

General Hospital of the City of Vienna 1784
Peter Friedrich Ludwigs Hospital from 1841 was the first hospital museum in the world
Irrenschloss, Frankfurt, Main 1864

With the opening of the General Hospital in Vienna in 1784, Emperor Joseph II set standards for large hospitals in Central Europe. The facility, with a capacity of 2,000 beds, was created by converting the Great Poor House. The wide, tree-covered courtyards and gardens are unusual. The 111 hospital rooms with an average of 20 beds were spacious. Unlike in Paris, for example, where three to four sick people shared a bed, here everyone got their own bed. Together with the praised cleanliness, this led to a significantly lower mortality rate. In the last courtyard, a five-story fortress-like rotunda with slit-like windows for 200 to 250 mentally ill people was built, the Narrenturm . Each cell had strong lattice doors and rings for chaining unruly inmates. Ten years later, as a result of innovations in the therapy of the mentally ill, the tower was already considered completely outdated.

From 1836, based on the idea of ​​the Protestant theologian Theodor Fliedner , civilly dressed deaconesses who attended a nursing school with modern teaching methods worked in hospitals.

In addition to scientific and medical upheavals, experiences in wars such as the Wars of Liberation against Napoleon (1813–1815) and the Crimean War (1853 / 1854–56) brought about particular innovations in the nursing areas of hospitals. The first hospital encyclopedia for the German Empire appeared in 1885.

Until the 19th century, the public hospitals were primarily supply centers for the lower class. Those who could afford it called the doctor to their home. That changed due to the rapid progress in medicine: the anesthesia , developed since 1846, opened up new fields such as abdominal surgery , promoted the expansion of operating theaters , the procurement of modern medical equipment and the inpatient stay of patients. The hospitals were also strengthened by the establishment of university clinics, which increasingly trained their doctors at the bedside.

1889 in Rochester in the US state of Minnesota , the Mayo Clinic - then St. Mary's Hospital - opened. It developed into the prototype for a new form of private hospital organization, which was determined by the cooperation of various specialists. The new methods of anesthesia, asepsis and antisepsis were considered from the start. The beginning of the large hospitals with 1000 beds and more can also be seen here.

As sanatoriums sanatoriums, spa and convalescent homes are called. The term, derived from the Latin [sanare] = to heal, is a word created in the 19th century. The so-called institutions are mostly privately owned.

See also

literature

  • Grace Goldin: Work of Mercy. A picture history of hospitals. Ontario (Canada) 1994.
  • John Howard: News from the finest hospitals and plague houses in Europe. Leipzig 1791.
  • Jean Imbert (Ed.): Histoire des Hôpitaux en France. Toulouse 1982.
  • Dieter Jetter: History of the Hospital. 6 volumes. Wiesbaden 1966–1987.
  • Dieter Jetter: Basics of the history of the hospital (1800-1900). Darmstadt 1977.
  • Dieter Jetter: The European hospital. From late antiquity to 1800. Cologne 1986. ISBN 3-7701-1560-0 .
  • Johann Georg Krünitz : The sick house. In: Economic-Technological Encylopedia . Volume 1–97, 2nd edition Volume 98–242, Berlin 1782–1858, here: Volume 47, pp. 120–590.
  • Oswald F. Kuhn: Hospitals. In: Handbook of Architecture. Edited by Josef Durm, Hermann Ende, Eduard Schmitt a. Heinrich Wagner. 4th part, 5th half volume, 1st issue. Stuttgart 1897.
  • Axel Hinrich Murken : The image of the German hospital in the 19th century. 2nd Edition. Münster 1978. ISBN 3-921801-01-X
  • Axel Hinrich Murken: My husband lies here and sends his regards. The hospital on old postcards. F. Coppenrath Verlag, Münster 1978. ISBN 3-920192-47-8
  • Axel Hinrich Murken: The structural development of the general hospital in the 19th century. Studies on the history of medicine in the 19th century. Volume 9. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlag, Göttingen 1979. ISBN 3-525-45355-8
  • Axel Hinrich Murken: The Charité in Berlin from 1780 to 1830. A 650-bed hospital from the Biedermeier period. In: doctor and hospital. Volume 5, 1980, pp. 20-36.
  • Axel Hinrich Murken: Basic features of the German hospital system from 1780 to 1930 taking Swiss models into account. Generus (Basel) 39 (1982), No. 1, pp. 7-45.
  • Axel Hinrich Murken: From poor hospital to large hospital. The history of the hospital from the 18th century to the present. 3. Edition. DuMont Buchverlag Cologne 1995. ISBN 3-7701-2134-1
  • Axel Hinrich Murken: History of the hospital and hospital system in the German-speaking area. In: Illustrated History of Medicine. Edited by Jean-Charles Sournia, Jacques Poulet and Marcel Martiny. Volume 5. Salzburg 1982, pp. 1594-1654. ISBN 3-85012-090-2
  • Cay-Rüdiger Prüll, Ulrich Tröhler: Hospital, hospital system. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte . De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , pp. 620-627.
  • Hans-Peter Rhomberg: The Hospital. Healing and care facilities through the ages. Lindenberg im Allgäu 2015. ISBN 978-3-89870-898-2
  • Adam Wienand: The Order of St. John. 2nd Edition. Cologne 1977.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ cf. Heinz Schmitz: When gods heal. The sanctuary of Asclepius in Epidaurus.
  2. ↑ cf. Franz Biba: Asclepius and the snake symbol in pharmacy and medicine. (PDF; 1.2 MB)
  3. ↑ cf. Juliane C. Wilmanns: The first hospitals in the world: The Roman Empire's medical service created professional medical care for the first time. In: Ärzteblatt , 2003; 100 (40): A-2592 / B-2161 / C-2034.
  4. ↑ Michael Dörnemann: Illness and healing in the theology of the early church fathers. Mohr Siebeck, 2003. ISBN 978-3-16-148161-1 . P. 198ff.
  5. ↑ Th. Szabó: Xenodochia, hospitals and hostels - ecclesiastical and commercial hospitality in medieval Italy (7th to 14th centuries). In: HC Peyer (ed.): Hospitality, tavern and inn in the Middle Ages. Munich / Vienna 1983 (= Writings of the Historisches Kolleg. Volume 3), pp. 61–92.
  6. ^ Siegfried Reicke : The German hospital and its law in the Middle Ages. 2 volumes. Stuttgart 1932 (= canon law treatises. 111–114); Reprint Amsterdam 1961, pp. 3-9.
  7. ↑ Kristian Bosselmann-Cyran: Xenodochium. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 1509.
  8. ^ III Lateran Council. Canon 23. In: IntraText digital library. Retrieved October 19, 2012 .
  9. ^ Johanna Bleker, Volker Hess: The Charité. Story (s) of a hospital. Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2000. ISBN 978-3-05-004525-2 . P. 18ff.
  10. ↑ Tobias Niedenthal: How the healing art came into the monasteries. In: Rudolf Walter (Ed.): Health from monasteries. Herder Verlag , Freiburg 2013. p. 6f. ISBN 978-3-451-00546-6
  11. ↑ a b The monastery medicine. Research group for monastery medicine .
  12. ^ Peter Kolb: The hospital and health system. In: Ulrich Wagner (Hrsg.): History of the city of Würzburg. 4 volumes, Volume I-III / 2 (I: From the beginnings to the outbreak of the Peasant War. 2001, ISBN 3-8062-1465-4 ; II: From the Peasant War 1525 to the transition to the Kingdom of Bavaria 1814. 2004, ISBN 3 -8062-1477-8 ; III / 1–2: From the transition to Bavaria to the 21st century. 2007, ISBN 978-3-8062-1478-9 ), Theiss, Stuttgart 2001–2007, Volume 1, 2001, p 386-409 and 647-653, here: p. 386 f.
  13. ↑ Kay Peter Jankrift : Infirmarium. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 671.
  14. ^ A b Nigel J. Shanks: Arabian medicine in the Middle Ages . In: Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine . 77, No. 1, January 1984, pp. 60-65. PMID 6366229 . PMC 1439563 (free full text).
  15. ↑ a b Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman: The development of the Health Sciences and Related Institutions During the First Six Centuries of Islam . In: ISoIT . 2004, pp. 973-984.
  16. ↑ Andrew C. Miller: Jundi-Shapur, bimaristans, and the rise of academic medical centers Archived from the original on December 29, 2015. In: Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine . 99, 2006, pp. 615-617. doi : 10.1258 / jrsm.99.12.615 . Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  17. ↑ a b Hussain Nagamia: Islamic Medicine History and Current Practice . In: Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine . 2, No. 4, October 2003, pp. 19-30. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  18. ↑ Peregrine Horde: The Earliest Hospitals in Byzantium, Western Europe, and Islam . In: Journal of Interdisciplinary History . 35, No. 3, Winter 2005, pp. 361-389. doi : 10.1162 / 0022195052564243 .
  19. ^ Françoise Micheau: The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East, in: Régis Morelon, Roshdi Rashed, Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science . Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-12410-7 , pp. 991-2 .
  20. ↑ a b Charlotte Frank: History of the hospital: where the hospital was more feared than death. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung , March 26, 2012.
  21. ^ Manfred Vasold: On the situation of the Nuremberg public hospitals and hospitals from 1770 to 1845. In: Würzburger medical-historical reports. Volume 17, 1998, pp. 399-438, here: pp. 400 f.
  22. ↑ History of the hospital Where the hospital was more feared than death. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. March 26, 2012. Retrieved October 19, 2016 .