Gender role

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Polarization according to gender characters or roles in German-language lexicons of the 18th century

Gender role or gender role (English gender role ) behaviors are called, in a culture of a particular gender are considered typical or acceptable (and assigned to individuals), or the behavior of an individual that this with his gender identity into communication and / or to whom it wants to express its gender identity.

Today, sociologically and psychologically , gender and gender are no longer equated in order to distinguish the culturally and socially prescribed gender roles from the biological conditions ( ♀ , ♂ ).

Concept development

The polarizing distinction between male and female habitus was, among other things, a central aspect of the bourgeoisisation of western societies and the implementation of the associated polar gender ideal. In the last third of the 18th century, the contrast between man and woman, compared to other societies, acquired a “specific new quality”: In place of class definitions, universal character definitions emerged “derived from nature as a combination of biology and determination and at the same time be relocated to the inside of the human being as an essential feature ”( Karin Hausen 1976).

Different terms with different conceptual contents have developed for the description :

  • At the end of the 18th century, the concept of “ character ” was initially used to describe gender character ; this approach is now considered obsolete.
  • With the emergence of the concept of “ social role ”, the terms gender role character, gender role or gender role increasingly prevailed in the 20th century .

With the increasing research into the distinctive category “gender”, the derivation from biology and nature turned out to be untenable (English sex for the biological gender ). New terms and concepts developed:

  • The concept of “ gender ” was first established in the English-speaking world from the 1970s and later in German, and with the praxeological turnaround at the end of the 20th century, the concept of “ doing gender ” (analysis approach in gender studies ).
  • The terms gender stereotypes and sex-role stereotypes commonly used in English have been used in scientific studies since the late 1960s. In German, both are usually given with the common translation of “ gender stereotypes ”. There is much less talk of gender role stereotypes in relation to assumptions about gender roles; this term is enclosed by gender stereotypes .
  • Since the concept of the habitus was established at the end of the 20th century, the term “ gender habitus ” has become increasingly popular , which scientifically explains the psycho- and sociogenesis of gender or doing gender.

Colloquially , the term "gender role" is used to a large extent, less often "gender role". This usually goes hand in hand with a less differentiated concept of gender as a biopsychosocial category of social order and social differentiation . In some cases, more differentiated technical terms are not only unknown, but also threaten one's own identity and are rejected. Compared to the meanwhile highly differentiated technical terms, gender-related terms in everyday language often appear as sub-complex or as a " naive , simplistic conception of gender as a natural , unchangeable , in-itself fact beyond social , cultural and specifically historical conditions" (Hark / Villa 2015).

Cultural gender roles

Dichotomous representation of gender roles in the double portrait of Elector Johann Wilhelm von der Pfalz and his wife Anna Maria Luisa de 'Medici , Jan Frans van Douven , 1708
Expansion of the gender role: a female brigant in southern Italy , mid-19th century

So far there are no known cultures without gender roles. They have evolved historically and are subject to constant change; only the different biological roles of women and men in reproduction were not called into question until the middle of the 20th century . Since medicine has offered the possibility of partially changing these biological roles, this part of the gender roles has also been discussed; however, this debate is limited to the fringes of society. (see also adoption by same-sex couples , rainbow family )

The cultural aspect of gender roles is very broad. Even if the main tendencies are recognizable, almost all possibilities of the cultural division of tasks have been practiced somewhere and at some point.

The best-known norm for cultural gender roles is probably the heteronormative or patriarchal one, which has been increasingly questioned and modified in the West since the beginning of the 20th century. Important factors included urbanization and the First World War and its aftermath :

  • Millions of women became widows (around 10 million dead soldiers, including 2 million German soldiers) or single mothers (the war orphans learned a different role model)
  • Millions of women worked in jobs previously held by men;
  • From autumn 1916, many were hungry (see also turnip winter ; the (sea) blockade caused at least 700,000 starvation deaths in Germany alone)
  • Millions of men returned from the war physically and / or mentally crippled (around 20 million wounded soldiers);
  • inflation starting in 1914 ended in hyperinflation and currency reform in 1923 ;
  • the Weimar Republic was marked by brief changing governments;
  • In some places the influence of the Catholic Church was waning ( in France this process had already started in 1905)
  • the anti-modernism in the Catholic Church had to slowly;
  • It was also felt as a turning point that women were given the right to vote in many countries in 1918 or after (e.g. Austria November 12, 1918; Germany November 30, 1918, USA 1920, Afghanistan 1963, Switzerland 1971).

Traditional role attribution

The “traditional” role attribution is accused of implying the claim that there are “natural” and strictly separated gender roles, male and female , which are automatically assigned to men and women. These gender roles are essentially:

  • Men
    • Head and breadwinner of the wife and family
    • Responsible for external contacts
    • Strong, rational, combative, sexually active
    • Men as "hunters" hardly dependent on women or "providers"
  • Women
    • Depending on and subject to a male protector (father, husband, etc.)
    • Responsible for the social ties within the partnership and family
    • Weak, emotional and irrational, balancing, sexually passive or disinterested
    • Women as "brood providers" dependent on "hunters"

sociology

In sociology, the term role also appears in connection with the term gender problem. Society has certain ideas about their actions for those who hold a certain position. This behavior is known as role behavior. In discussions, the topic of gender roles is usually juxtaposed between sociocultural and biological influences. In addition, there is still the view that the individual is to be understood as a being formed exclusively by the environment. A counterexample can also be found for each position.

Differentiation between role behavior and role expectations

In the more recent sociological literature there is a distinction between role behavior and role expectations. Expectations are understood in terms of their recurring attitudes, performance and activities. The individual who is considered to be the bearer of the role has to fulfill the task through appropriate behavior. In addition to occupation and age, gender is also important for assignment to certain roles. The ideas about certain characteristics of the sexes differ from culture to culture.

Depending on a certain gender, expectations and regulations differ. In western culture, women are more likely to be assigned the characteristics of dependency, passivity, restraint in sexual matters, empathy and youthful sexual attractiveness, while men are assigned aggressiveness, assertiveness, dominance, emotional suppression and independence.

According to gender researchers, what would be expected or granted as a matter of course in a man is blamed on women as misconduct, with both women and men sanctioning such misconduct .

With regard to general expectations of male and female characteristics, there are also expectations regarding their activities. The role of women is described by Parsons and Bales as expressive. It includes activities with a social focus such as caring, nursing, education, and service. The role of the man on the other hand is described as a contrast and primarily deals with the objective world. As a result of these polarized role expectations, social positions such as work, business, politics and family are already given. It is therefore more difficult for men and women in our society to work in jobs that are atypical of the gender.

The term gender role is also used in the sense of behavioral regularities. It differs explicitly from the concept of gender-typical behavior, which is used in psychology. The role of women has also increasingly found its way into sociological research in recent years. The study examines education and training, work, politics and family. There is considerable consensus between male and female roles in the eyes of the general public.

Gender stereotypes

Song about stereotypes, published in December 2017 in response to the Weinstein scandal , the gender stereotypes that are often underlying in the film business and their sexist effects

definition

These stereotypes are “ cognitive structures that contain socially shared knowledge about the characteristic features of men and women”. This definition shows the dual nature of gender stereotypes: On the one hand, they belong to the “individual possession of knowledge” and, on the other hand, form the core of a “culturally shared understanding of the typical characteristics of the sexes”. It is characteristic of gender stereotypes that they have descriptive and prescriptive elements:

  • Descriptive Nature of Gender Stereotypes

The descriptive express traditional assumptions about the characteristics and behavior that women and men typically show. This simplifies interactions and creates expectations: social perception is facilitated. If someone does not meet descriptive expectations, observers will be maximally surprised.

  • Prescriptive nature of gender stereotypes

The prescriptive proportions are based on what properties and what behavior show women and men should . It is based on traditionally defined gender roles. They legitimize socially defined differences between the sexes, and ultimately these rules of conduct aim to maintain or stabilize the gender hierarchy in society. If prescriptive expectations are violated, this leads to surprise, anger and possibly also social sanctions. Those gender stereotypes that are often derived from roles are prescriptive (e.g. men are more likely to be required to be assertive and women more likely to be caring). There are also gender stereotypes that are not prescriptive (eg. B. is from the gender stereotype women like to shop. Not deduced that women like to go shopping will ).

Related terms

  • Gender role

The terms gender stereotypes and gender roles are closely related. Gender role is used inconsistently in the literature: Dorothee Alfermann example summarizes the concept of gender role prescriptive in contrast to that of her only descriptive term understood gender stereotypes . Other authors, on the other hand, see descriptive and prescriptive functions in the term gender role as well. Characteristic of the gender role concept is the emphasis on socially shared behavioral expectations, which are directed towards people because of their socially assigned sex, is characteristic of all authors.

  • Stereotyping

While gender stereotypes are anchored in the cognitive , stereotyping is understood as the application of stereotype-based knowledge to very specific people, i.e. a process. In the first moments of an encounter, stereotyping takes place without conscious control based on the gender of the other person. It is possible to influence this process through one's own will, but only if certain conditions are met. This includes B. a high motivation to perceive and absorb information about the other person that does not correspond to gender stereotypes.

  • sexism

Under sexism gender-based stereotypes, emotions and behaviors are to be understood that draw an unequal social status of women and men by himself.

  • Global stereotypes and substereotypes

Gender stereotypes about the general categories of women and men are called global stereotypes . Since these are made up of a whole range of categories, they are too imprecise to fulfill the functions of gender stereotypes . Therefore, substereotypes have developed. Only individual criteria of the global stereotypes are bundled in these . This means that substereotypes are more specific and more homogeneous than global stereotypes and thus fulfill their functions better than these.

Methods of recording gender stereotypes

In the past, lists of characteristics and similar questionnaires were used to record gender stereotypes. In the present the method of the percentage estimate has proven to be advantageous, also because it enables a more differentiated picture. The respondents indicate on a scale from 0 to 100 how many percent of women or men have a listed feature.

Contents of global stereotypes

The concepts of warmth or expressivity (or femininity , community orientation ) summarize the characteristics that are more often associated with women than with men. Concepts of (task-related) competence or instrumentality (also: masculinity , self-assertion ) include characteristics that are more often assigned to men than women. The stability of these feature bundles over time is “remarkably high”, as is the similarity in different cultures. In older literature, the image of the man was drawn as "independent, objective, active, competitive, adventurous, confident and ambitious". The woman was assigned the characteristics "dependent, subjective , passive, (...), tactful, friendly and emotional". She was also credited with lacking traits that were part of the male stereotype - women were "not competitive, not adventurous, not confident, not ambitious".

Substereotype content

Some common substereotypes are in contrast to the respective gender stereotype. For both women and men, all four logically possible combinations of the characteristics of the global stereotypes warmth and competence occur: There are four types of substereotypes:

  1. Low competence, high warmth (e.g. the housewife , the softie ): paternalistic substereotypes that go hand in hand with low status and cooperative interdependence .
  2. High competence, high warmth (e.g. the self-confident, the professor ): Admiring substereotypes that are coupled with high status and cooperative interdependence.
  3. Low competence, low warmth (e.g. the philistine , the proletarian ): Despising substereotypes that are associated with low status and competitive interdependence.
  4. High competence, low warmth (e.g. the career woman , the yuppie ): envious substereotypes that are paired with high status and competitive interdependence.

Paternalistic and envious substereotye about women help maintain the gender hierarchy:

  1. Paternalistic female stereotypes (high warmth, low competence) - such as a housewife - make it clear how women should be from the perspective of men. These substereotypes contain the characteristic warmth , which is highly regarded by many people of both sexes. These paternalistic substereotypes lead women to persist in or to accept traditional gender roles. Since men put women in an allegedly positive light through these substereotypes, they can perceive themselves to be relatively unaffected by sexism and at the same time leave the existing power relations untouched.
  2. Envious female stereotypes (low warmth, high competence) - such as career women - have opposite characteristics. From a male perspective, they represent a justification for the discrimination against women: women who are successful in traditional male professions are, for example, B. perceived as unfair or threatening competitors, the attribution of emotional coldness reinforces this assessment. Envious female stereotypes serve to limit women in their professional opportunities.

Approaches to explaining the consistency of gender stereotypes

Two theoretical approaches try to explain the persistence of the stereotypes of warmth and competence for both sexes. The two models are not to be understood as mutually exclusive.

  • Social Roles Theory (Alice Eagly)

According to the theory of social roles developed by Alice Eagly, the characteristics follow from the typical professional and family roles of the two genders: People infer from the observed role behavior of people directly on the characteristics of the role owner, without considering that a behavior can often be traced back to role expectations and not on characteristics of people. This phenomenon is known as correspondence distortion.

  • Stereotype content model (Susan Fiske)

Status and gender stereotypes are closely intertwined: From the point of view of the theory of ambivalent stereotypes , the traditional male stereotype results from a relatively high social status in combination with a competitive orientation towards women in professional life. The traditional female stereotype can be derived from a relatively low social status in combination with a cooperative interdependence with men in the partnership and domestic-family area. Gender stereotypes, which dictate that men be strong and assertive, while women must be humble and caring, keep the existing system alive: men receive social support for behaviors that underline their status, power and competence, whereas women must expect social sanctions if they behave like this.

Development of gender stereotypes

Biological, social and psychological processes work together in gender differentiation. This process is called gender typing . It is never closed, but is subject to social influence as well as inner development over the entire life of a person.

  • Development processes

Gender stereotyping presupposes certain cognitive performance, especially the formation of the categories female and male , and their assignment to people. Children as early as six months old can distinguish between male and female voices, nine-month-old babies can distinguish between female and male faces. The basis for stereotyping processes is already in place at one year olds. Between the first and the third year of life, more and more gender-typical preferences for activities, toys and play partners develop; the latter is particularly pronounced in preschool and early elementary school age. By the age of three, most children can correctly determine their own gender and that of other children, and rigid forms of stereotyping have developed by the beginning of elementary school. Towards the end of primary school, these become less rigid again, and with the increasing frequency of opposite-sex encounters among adolescents, the initially very negative stereotyping of the opposite sex is put into perspective: the stereotypes become more ambivalent.

  • Social influence

Sources of sociocultural influence such as family members, peers and the media “help determine what it means to be a boy or a girl, a man or a woman”.

Functions of gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are all the more useful for an individual, the more they fulfill their functions for planning their actions and for their social orientation in their environment:

  • Economy

With little cognitive effort, a lot of information can be conveyed through gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes thus simplify social perception "by putting individual individuals into drawers and judging them on the basis of category affiliation."

The individual can use gender stereotypes to classify himself into a group and thus create a coherent self-image. According to Eckes, the need for positive self-esteem is "often associated with a tendency to differentiate between ingroup and outgroup and a more negative assessment of the outgroup."

Gender stereotypes make it possible to identify unobservable characteristics of a counterpart and thus reduce uncertainty. From the presence of biological characteristics, conclusions are drawn about the identifying characteristics, such as clothing, and ascribed characteristics such as personality characteristics or behavior.

Gender stereotypes can be used to evaluate the groups to which an individual feels they belong and their characteristics in comparison to outgroups. Often, studies found differences in the assessment of stereotypes for women and men. For example, in 1968 Rosenkratz and his co-authors found that characteristics associated with masculinity are ascribed a higher degree of social desirability than characteristics associated with femininity. However, this finding is questioned for methodological reasons. According to a more recent study by Eagly and Mladinic, some features of the female stereotype are even rated more positively than those of the male stereotype. The male stereotype is therefore rated increasingly negative, the female increasingly positive. Stereotypical self-descriptions go hand in hand with the stereotypical assessment of others.

Gender stereotypes also contribute to linguistic and non-linguistic communication between people.

  • Legitimation of status differences and social practices

Gender stereotypes can also legitimize social practices such as rejecting certain groups, as well as differences in status between groups.

Gender stereotypes in social interaction

Gender stereotypes influence the form and course of interpersonal interactions. Examples for this are:

At times, one person's unexpressed expectations of another cause the second to behave in ways that correspond to the first person's expectations. Under certain conditions, gender stereotypes can be supported and gender-typical behavior can be generated. For example, if a man with a traditional attitude expects a colleague to prefer to deal with so-called feminine rather than so-called masculine tasks, then the woman in a joint work group actually tends to tend towards so-called feminine tasks.

  • Knowledge of gender stereotypes requires stereotype-compliant action

If people realize that their behavior could be confirming negative gender stereotypes, it may be that they are acting in accordance with the stereotypes and thereby confirming them. So was z. For example, when working on a demanding math test, stereotype-compliant stereotype evidence that there are gender differences in this performance area. Afterwards, the performance of female students was lower than if this information was not given. However, this effect did not occur in students.

  • The influence of tendencies towards self-expression

Self-expression tendencies have an impact on whether a person acts in accordance with gender stereotypes. In a 1975 study by Zanna and Pack, the following scenarios were tested: Some women expected to meet an attractive man who was not traditionally towards women. These women described themselves as opposing roles. The other part of the women assumed that the man had traditional role concepts with regard to women - and here the women drew a role - conforming self-image of themselves .

Importance of gender stereotypes

If prescriptive assumptions are violated - e.g. if B. women are not empathetic or men do not dominate - the result is usually rejection or punishment. Gender stereotypes are extremely resistant to change : Violations of stereotypical expectations rarely lead to a change in stereotypes.

  • Importance in professional life

The 1990 US judgment in the Price Waterhouse trial against Ann Hopkins pioneered the link between gender stereotyping in the workplace and discrimination. The decision stated that an employer who demands assertiveness for certain positions, but at the same time condemns masculinity in women, puts them in an unacceptable no-win situation : “If the woman is considered to be poorly assertive, she becomes unsuitable for the position believes that if she demonstrates this characteristic, she is disadvantaged because it violates her gender norm. ”Research results on the question of whether women with characteristics or behaviors that are considered male or men with characteristics or behaviors that are considered female are disadvantaged in their work, shows a tendency : People who match gender stereotypes in terms of their characteristics and behavior seem to have an easier job on the way up.

The divergence of expectations resulting from a requirement profile and gender stereotypes is evident in managers . Characteristics with a predominantly male connotation are expected of him, and there are indications that women managers are even more likely to have these expectations than male managers.

Gender role differentiation

A look at educational levels and training shows that the higher the educational level, the lower the proportion of girls. In addition, there is also a gender-specific differentiation of the teaching content. For example, women also find fewer jobs in lower professions, which bring low prestige. Even today there are differences in many areas of our economy. There is a power imbalance in the relationship between men and women, not just in terms of income, but also in terms of employment. When women drop out of work to start a family, they face greater difficulties in returning to work. Should you still have a job, you will find yourself confronted with the effects of the double burden.

The authors Simone de Beauvoir , Shulamith Firestone , Alice Schwarzer , Kate Millett , Betty Friedan , Germaine Greer and Esther Vilar have spoken about this topic . In her book, The 48-Hour Day, Arlie Hochschild addresses the problem of the double burden of women and work in harmony with the family.

Processes in the development of gender role behavior

The central question that arises is what causes different gender behavior and how this can be changed under certain circumstances. There is no science of its own that deals with the topic / problem of gender roles, but rather an interdisciplinary approach consisting of biological, cultural, social and economic conditions, on the basis of which gender-typical behavior is to be researched. Important sciences for research into gender-typical behavior are biology, ethnology, psychology, social psychology and sociology.

In the psychoanalytic view, the opinion is that the gender role identity of children is acquired through a process of identification. Children have a tendency to identify with the parent of the same sex. Such identification is seen as crucial for taking on a role, since boys tend to adopt the personality traits of the father and girls of the mother. In this identification process, parental behavior, thinking and feeling are mimicked. Furthermore, parents who show stereotypical role behavior seem to prevent their child from identifying the sexes rather than encourage it. Children seem to find it easier to identify with less stereotypical parents.

Another theory about the acquisition of gender roles is the theory of social learning. This theory is widely seen as the best explanation for the acquisition of gender role behavior. Social learning theory can also be seen very well for the explanation of gender role differences and their development. Appropriate behaviors of a given gender role are reinforced, which leads to a repetition of this behavior. Deviating from a suitable gender behavior is reflected in a punishment and thus becomes rarer and ultimately disappears completely. Another model that is very effective here is observational learning or so-called imitation learning. It is assumed that children acquire the behaviors by observing the same-sex parent. Experiments refuted this, since no gender-specific imitations took place in children with parents of both sexes. In everyday observation, however, gender-specific behavior can be seen, for example in girls trying on their mother's clothes. Parents also influence gender behavior by either rewarding or disapproving actions with affection or approval. The example with the mother's dress can also be mentioned here. This behavior tends to be reinforced in the case of daughters, but is very often rejected in the case of boys. A weakness in the theory is that mostly only external factors are taken into account in the formation of role behavior, but not the cognitive and affective ones.

The third theory is that of cognitive development. This theory deals with the developmental stages of a child's thinking as described by Piaget. The ideas about role behavior change in children with intellectual development. From around the age of three children are able to tell whether they are boys or girls. This self-categorization is important for the further development of values, attitudes and activities. In earlier years of development, gender roles are mainly limited to physical characteristics such as clothing or the like. By around the age of six, gender identity has stabilized to such an extent that children realize that they cannot change their gender by cutting their hair, for example. Gender stereotypes encourage certain (stereotypical) behavior in children. Boys and girls identify masculinity and femininity with certain behavioral characteristics. Strength, power and competence are equated with masculinity, compassion, gentleness, care and motherliness are equated with femininity.

Women's movement

Both from the mid- 19th century emerging women's movement as well as social changes such as industrialization and in particular the two world wars , which required that women who left them by the company defined as "traditional" place gender role, led to major changes in gender roles ; the female gender role was more liberalized than the male . For example, For example, a young woman who is aiming for a degree in the natural sciences is looking for understanding and acceptance almost everywhere, even if the career opportunities are worse than those of a man with comparable training. However, a man who takes on the role of a "househusband" for more than a few months, for example because his wife has a better education, encounters incomprehension among many men as well as many women.

Research results and studies have also been presented in various humanities and natural sciences that refute the foundations of the traditional cultural division of roles. Some also doubt that there are only two strictly separated sexes. The transgender movement and the increasing awareness of intersexuality should be mentioned here in particular .

Legal requirements

World map of army forms :
  • no (own) armed forces
  • no conscription (volunteer army / professional army / suspended)
  • Conscription exists, but less than 20% of the conscripts are actually drafted
  • Conscription exists, but it was decided to dissolve it within the next three years
  • Conscription
  • not specified

    • In some countries, certain legal provisions focus on the division of roles between the sexes:

    With a few exceptions ( Israel , Norway , Sweden , partly China ), conscription only extends to the male population; Women, on the other hand, can volunteer in many armies. Overall, however, the vast majority of the countries of the so-called First World have now renounced compulsory military service, although due to the changed geopolitical situation, it is being abandoned or the reintroduction is being discussed.

    In some European countries, men have a higher statutory retirement age due to their historically evolved role as family breadwinners (e.g. Greece, Austria , Switzerland , Italy).

    See also

    literature

    • Annemarie Allemann-Tschopp: gender roles. An attempt at an interdisciplinary synthesis . Huber Verlag , Bern / Stuttgart / Vienna 1979, ISBN 3-456-80663-9 .
    • Rita Bourauel: To assess age- and gender-specific sexual attractiveness in old age. Dissertation, Kovac, Hamburg 1992, ISBN 3-86064-015-1 .
    • Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: On roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker, Beate Kortendiek (Hrsg.): Handbook women and gender research - theory, methods, empiricism. 3. Edition. Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, Wiesbaden 2010, pp. 178–189.
    • Erving Goffman , Hubert Knoblauch: Interaction and Gender . 2nd Edition. Campus , Frankfurt a. M. 2001, ISBN 3-593-36858-7 .
    • Esther R. Greenglass: Gender Role as Fate. Social and psychological aspects of female and male role behavior . German first edition. Klett-Cotta , Stuttgart 1986, ISBN 3-608-91289-4 (English: A World of Difference: Gender Roles in Perspective (1982) . Translated by Urs Aeschbacher and Wilhelm Häberle).
    • Arlie Russell Hochschild: The 48 Hour Day. Ways out of the dilemma of working parents . Droemer Knaur , Munich 1993, ISBN 3-426-84015-4 (English: The second shift . Translated by Andrea Galler).

    Web links

    Wiktionary: Gender role  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

    Individual evidence

    1. ↑ Karin Hausen: The polarization of the "sex characters". A reflection of the dissociation of work and family life, in: Werner Conze (ed.), Social history of the family in modern times in Europe. Neue Forschungen, Stuttgart 1976, pp. 363-393.
    2. ^ Karin Hausen: Family and Role Division. The Polarization of Sexual Stereotypes in the Nineteenth Century. An Aspect of Dissociation of Work and Family Life, in: Richard J. Evans, WR Lee (eds.), Social History of the Family in Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Germany, London 1981, pp. 51-83.
    3. ↑ Karin Hausen : The polarization of the "sexual characters": A reflection of the dissociation of work and family life. In: Werner Conze (Ed.): Social history of the family in modern times in Europe. Neue Forschungen, Stuttgart 1976, ISBN 3-12-910390-2 , pp. 363–393, here pp. 369–370 ( online at archive.org ).
    4. ↑ David Fluhr: Thesenblatt: Karin Hausen - The polarization of the "sex characters". In: Soziologie-Ppolitik.de. Private website, February 12, 2014, accessed March 10, 2020.
    5. ↑ P. Rosenkrantz, S. Vogel u. a .: Sex-role stereotypes and self-concepts in college students. In: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology . Volume 32, Heft 3, 1968, pp. 287-295 (English; doi: 10.1037 / h0025909 ).
    6. ↑ Alexandra Fleischmann, Monika Sieverding: Gender stereotypes. In: Dorsch - Lexicon of Psychology . 2020, accessed March 10, 2020.
    7. ^ Dörte Weber: Gender construction and social psychology. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2005, p. 118, footnote 20.
    8. ↑ Google N-Gram Viewer : Doing Gender, Gender Character, Gender Role, Gender Role, Gender Habitus. In: books.google.com. 2013, accessed on March 10, 2020 (English; comparison of word frequencies).
    9. ↑ Duden online : Gender role vs. Gender role. Retrieved March 10, 2020.
    10. ↑ Sabine Hark, Paula-Irene Villa : Anti-Genderism: Sexuality and gender as arenas of current political disputes. Transcript, Bielefeld September 2015, ISBN 978-3-8376-3144-9 , p. 7: »Anti-Genderism« - Why this book?
    11. ↑ Ute Daniel: Working women in war society. Job, family and politics in the First World War (= critical studies on historical science . Volume 84). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1989, ISBN 978-3-525-35747-7 (Dissertation. Bielefeld University 1986)
    12. ↑ Annemarie Allemann-Tschopp: Gender roles. An attempt at an interdisciplinary synthesis . Huber Verlag , Bern / Stuttgart / Vienna 1979, ISBN 3-456-80663-9 , p. 116 .
    13. ↑ Annemarie Allemann-Tschopp: Gender roles. An attempt at an interdisciplinary synthesis . Huber Verlag , Bern / Stuttgart / Vienna 1979, ISBN 3-456-80663-9 , p. 27 .
    14. ^ A b Annemarie Allemann-Tschopp: Gender roles. An attempt at an interdisciplinary synthesis . Huber Verlag , Bern / Stuttgart / Vienna 1979, ISBN 3-456-80663-9 , p. 117 .
    15. ↑ Rita Bourauel: On the assessment of age- and gender-specific sexual attractiveness in old age, Dr. Kovac, Hamburg 1992, ISBN 3-86064-015-1
    16. ↑ Christiane Jüngling, Gender Policy in Organizations: Power Games for Equal Opportunities in Unequal Conditions and Male Rules of the Game , in: G. Krell and M. Osterloh (Eds.), Personnel Policy from the Point of View of Women - Women from the Point of View of Personnel Policy: what can personnel research do learn from women's studies? , Hampp, 1992, ISBN 3-87988-045-X (p. 173–205), p. 195. Quoted from: Andrea Fried, Christof Baitsch, Ralf Wetzel: When two do the same thing: Discrimination-free personnel assessment, vdf Hochschulverlag AG, 2000, ISBN 978-3-7281-2525-5 . P. 28
    17. ↑ Annemarie Allemann-Tschopp: Gender roles. An attempt at an interdisciplinary synthesis . Huber Verlag , Bern / Stuttgart / Vienna 1979, ISBN 3-456-80663-9 , p. 118 .
    18. ↑ ALF Insight: Refuge 'HYRRS'
    19. ^ Richard D. Ashmore, Frances K. Del Boca: Sex Stereotypes and Implicit Personality Theory: Toward a Cognitive-social Psychological Conceptualization . In: Sex Roles , 5, 1979, pp. 219-248; Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: man and woman from a socio-psychological point of view. Pfaffenweiler Centaurus Verlag, 1997; Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
    20. ↑ a b c Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
    21. ↑ a b c d Ursula Athenstaedt, Dorothee Alfermann: Gender roles and their consequences. A socio-psychological consideration. Stuttgart Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2011, p. 15.
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    23. ^ AH Eagly: Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, New York Lawrence Erlbaum Verlag, 1987, quoted from: Ursula Athenstaedt, Dorothee Alfermann: Gender roles and their consequences. A socio-psychological consideration. Stuttgart Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2011, p. 15.
    24. ↑ Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 180.
    25. ↑ Ursula Athenstaedt, Dorothee Alfermann: Gender roles and their consequences. A socio-psychological consideration. Stuttgart Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2011, p. 22.
    26. ↑ Dorothee Alfermann: Gender roles and gender-typical behavior. Stuttgart Kohlhammer Verlag, 1996. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: From roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
    27. ↑ So z. B. Alice H. Eagly, Steven J. Karau: Role Congruity Theoryx of Prejudice toward Fenmale Leaders. In: Psychological Review. Volume 109, 2001, pp. 573-598. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
    28. ↑ Sarah E. Zemore, Susan T. Fiske, Hyun-J. Kim: Gender Stereotypes and the Dynamics of Social Interaction. In: Thomas Eckes, Hanns M. Trautner (Eds.): The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender. Mahwah, New York, Erlbaum Verlag, 2000, pp. 207-241. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
    29. ^ Susan T. Fiske: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination. In: Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, Lindzey Gardner (Eds.): The Handbook of Social Psychology. , 4th Edition, Volume 1, Boston Mc-Graw-Hill Verlag, 1998, pp. 357-411. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
    30. ↑ Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 179.
    31. ↑ Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
    32. ↑ Kay Deaux, Marianne La France: Gender. In: Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, Lindzey Gardner (Eds.): The Handbook of Social Psychology. , 4th Edition, Volume 1, Boston Mc-Graw-Hill Verlag, 1998, pp. 788-827; Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: man and woman from a social-psychological point of view . Pfaffenweiler Centaurus Verlag, 1997; Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 179.
    33. ↑ David J. Bergen, John E. Williams: Sex Stereotypes in the United States Revisited: 1972-1988. In: Sex Roles , Volume 24, 1991, pp. 413-423. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 179.
    34. ↑ John E. Williams, Deborah L. Best: Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A Multination Study. Revised edition, Newbury Park, California Sage Verlag, 1990. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 179.
    35. ↑ a b c d Esther R. Greenglass: Gender role as fate. Social and psychological aspects of female and male role behavior . German first edition. Klett-Cotta , Stuttgart 1986, ISBN 3-608-91289-4 , p. 24 (English: A World of Difference: Gender Roles in Perspective (1982) . Translated by Urs Aeschbacher and Wilhelm Häberle).
    36. ↑ Thomas Eckes: Paternalistic and Envious Gender Stereotypes: Testing Predictions from the Stereotype Content Model . In: Sex Roles , Volume 47, 2002, pp. 99-114. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 182.
    37. ↑ Susan T. Fiske, Amy JC Cuddy, Peter Glick, ´Jun Xu: A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow from Perceived Status and Competition. In: Journal of Psychology and Social Psychology , Volume 82, 2002, pp. 878-902. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 182.
    38. ^ A b Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 182.
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    40. ↑ Michael Conway, M. Teresa Pizzamiglio, Lauren Mont: Status, Communality and Agency: Implications for Stereotypes of Gender and Other Groups. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , Volume 71, 1996, pp. 25-38. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, pp. 179–180.
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    44. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 181.
    45. ↑ Hanns M. Trautner, Nicole Helbing, Winfried B. Sahm, Arnold Lohaus: ignorance - rigidity - flexibility: - a development model of gender role stereotyping . In: Journal for Developmental Psychology and Pedagogical Psychology , Volume 19, 1988, pp. 105-120. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 181.
    46. ↑ Kay Bussey, Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development and Differentiation. In: Psychological Review , Volume 106, 1999, pp. 676-713. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 180.
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    48. ↑ T. Eckes: Gender stereotypes. Woman and man from a socio-psychological point of view. Volume 5 of the series of publications by the Center for Interdisciplinary Women's Studies at the Christian Albrechts University in Kiel. Centaurus Verlagsgesellschaft Pfaffenweiler, 1997. Quoted from: Dörte Weber: Gender construction and social psychology. Theoretical model and analysis in studies of the nursing profession. Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften Wiesbaden, 2005, p. 121.
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    53. ↑ a b K. Deaux, ME Kite: Gender Stereotypes. In: FL Denmark, MA Paludi (Ed.): Psychology of Women. A handbook of issues and theories. Greenwoold Press Westport, Connecticut / London, 1993. Quoted from: Dörte Weber: Gender construction and social psychology. Theoretical model and analysis in studies of the nursing profession. Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften Wiesbaden, 2005, p. 121.
    54. ↑ Berna J. Skrypneck, Mark Snyder: On the Self-perpetuating Nature of Stereotypes about Women and Men. In: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , Volume 18, 1982, pp. 277-291. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 185.
    55. ^ Laurie T. O'Brien, Christian S. Crandall: Stereotype Threat and Arousal: Effects on Women's Math Performance. In: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , Volume 29, 2003, pp. 782-789. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 185.
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    64. ↑ Esther R. Greenglass: Gender Role as Fate. Social and psychological aspects of female and male role behavior . German first edition. Klett-Cotta , Stuttgart 1986, ISBN 3-608-91289-4 , p. 41 (English: A World of Difference: Gender Roles in Perspective (1982) . Translated by Urs Aeschbacher and Wilhelm Häberle).
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    66. ↑ Esther R. Greenglass: Gender Role as Fate. Social and psychological aspects of female and male role behavior . German first edition. Klett-Cotta , Stuttgart 1986, ISBN 3-608-91289-4 , p. 43 (English: A World of Difference: Gender Roles in Perspective (1982) . Translated by Urs Aeschbacher and Wilhelm Häberle).
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