sexism

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Sexism (derived from English sex "biological sex" with the suffix -ism ) is a generic term for a wide range of individual phenomena of unconscious or conscious discrimination on the basis of gender. This also includes sexual harassment under certain conditions . Sexism is based on socially shared, implicit gender theories or gender prejudices, which assume an unequal social status of women and men and which are manifested in gender stereotypes , affects and behavior.

  • As a traditional or open sexism open, on the sex (lat. Is sexus based) discrimination referred.
  • As modern sexism denial of discrimination is called and the rejection of measures that aim to reduce social inequalities between the sexes. This form of sexism is not open and direct, but indirect.

Sexism is the subject of legislation and social research in many Western countries , in particular gender studies and prejudice research .

Origin of the term

Word formation sexism as parallel formation to racism

The German word sexism is an Anglicism that originated as a translation of the English word sexism .

The English word sexism is a neologism that was coined by Pauline M. Leet as part of her lecture "Women and the Undergraduate" on November 18, 1965. She was then a professor at Franklin & Marshall College in Lancaster , Pennsylvania :

"If you claim (...) that since fewer women write good poetry , this justifies their complete exclusion, take a position that corresponds to that of a racist - I could call you a 'sexist' in this case (...). Both the racist and the sexist pretend that everything that happened never happened, and both make decisions and draw conclusions about a person's worth by referring to factors that are irrelevant in either case. "

- Pauline M. Leet, 1965

The neologism sexism is a parallel formation to the term racism ( racism ,), the spread also in this time world to discrimination against ethnic groups counter.

The term sexism was first used in writing in 1968 by the American author Caroline Bird (1915-2011). He quickly established himself in the US women's movement of the 1960s. In itself it is gender-neutral, but for a long time stood exclusively for the devaluation of women, and with a few exceptions, research has long focused on sexism towards women. It is now assumed that sexism also affects men as well as transsexual and intersex people as well as transgender people . The central dimension of modern sexism is the conscious or unconscious non- recognition (cf. defense mechanism ) of continued discrimination against women.

The much older term misogyny , on the other hand, refers exclusively to the devaluation of women, femininity or non-masculinity within androcentric power relations. The term misogyny continues to be used in research, but the term sexism dominates as a key term for gender-based discrimination.

German term sexism: misunderstanding and narrowing of meaning

As with many Anglicisms , the direct adoption of an English term into German leads to a change in meaning - in this case, the adoption of the English word sexism as the German word sexism leads to a narrowing of the meaning. In contrast to English, the word sex in everyday German does not mean '(biological) sex', but rather 'intercourse, sexual activity, sexuality'. The suffix -ism stands for an attitude of mind (examples: capitalism , liberalism , socialism , militarism , anarchism , dualism ). The word formation “sexism” in German suggests the misunderstanding that sexism stands for a mental attitude that is focused on sexual intercourse or that it is all about discrimination on the basis of sexuality ( sexual coercion , sexual violence , sexual abuse ).

The coexistence of the broader English term sexism and the narrowed German term sexism favors misunderstandings and makes it more difficult in German to educate and communicate about gender-related discrimination. The narrowing of the meaning of the German word sexism hides a considerable part of the gender-related, non-sexual discrimination aspects that the English term names. German-language education about sexism must therefore always work against the narrowing of meaning that the German term sexism semantically entails.

Definitions

The generic term sexism is about the wide range of phenomena of discrimination. Research into institutional discrimination and everyday discrimination (see, for example, racist discrimination , institutional racism , everyday racism ), which has been promoted in the English-speaking world since the 1960s, provides a better understanding . In the case of sexism, too, institutionalized sexism and everyday sexism prove to be important bases for understanding. In the German-speaking countries there has been no such research tradition so far, but rather a disguise of the social and everyday practical character of sexist phenomena through individualization or personalization.

Everyday sexism, institutional sexism, institutionalized sexism

So far, there has hardly been any distinction between the terms everyday sexism, institutional sexism and institutionalized sexism. Scientific definitions point to the shaping in everyday social life, in the processes of social standardization or institutionalization as well as the shaping of the associated institutions. Different terms arise less from differences in content than from different scientific conceptual instruments and specialist disciplines. Everyday sexism describes “sexist attitudes that are shared by the vast majority of us because we live in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm”. "The vast majority of us will develop to some extent unwanted attitudes with prejudice and discriminatory behavior simply by living in a society where stereotypical information is abundant and discriminatory behavior is the norm". Sexism is based on gender-related social norms ; H. "Assumptions a society has about what is correct, acceptable and permissible". Sexist norms do not have to be taught directly, but are adopted and continued from childhood until other norms can prevail. As with other forms of discrimination, normative conformity in sexism leads to a "tendency to adapt to the group in order to meet the group's expectations and to gain recognition". The term institutionalized sexism makes it clear that there is also an institutionalization of prejudices . The concept of everyday sexism was hardly widespread in German-speaking countries until 2012. While it has long been established in the English- speaking and academic world, it only emerged in the German-speaking region when it was discussed on the occasion of the hashtag #aufschrei in early 2013. Since then, it has also found increasing use in everyday German and scientific language in order to name and analyze “sexism as an everyday phenomenon not only in science”. The next wave of spreading came about as a result of the Weinstein scandal and the widespread international impact of the hashtag #MeToo since October 2017. Since then, everyday sexism has become an issue in more and more areas of society.

Generic term sexism

Sexism is an “umbrella term” for a “wide range of individual phenomena” that “result in an unequal social status of women and men” and that are institutionalized in societies. Due to the institutionalization and the social pressure to conform , they can only be overcome individually with difficulty. Individual phenomena of sexism are grouped into three categories :

This definition includes men as possible addressees of sexism. Sexism is a component of “socially shared implicit gender theories” (gender belief system), in which “everyday assumptions about the sexes and their mutual relationships” are summarized.

Just like racism, sexism is “an essentialism ” that wants to attribute “the millennia-old work on the socialization of the biological and the biologization of the social” to a “biological nature” and “relentlessly derives all acts of existence from it”.

Depending on the scientific discipline, different aspects are in the foreground when defining sexism.

The following important information is missing from this article or section:
Sexism in advertising; Extent, forms, judgment of sexism against transsexual and intersexual persons, against transgender as well as against men
Help Wikipedia by researching and pasting it .

Psychology and social psychology

In psychology and social psychology , sexism is often defined in terms of prejudiced (negative) attitudes and discriminatory behavior towards people based on their gender or, even more broadly, as "stereotypical assessment, evaluation, disadvantage or preference of a person solely on the basis of their gender". These definitions include stereotyping, devaluation (see dysphemism ) and discrimination, which theoretically can affect women and men equally. American social psychologists Peter Glick and Susan Fiske define sexism as hostility towards women. Sexism produces the maintenance of social roles, whereby this particularly pushes women into a subordinate position and into a position with less power than men.

sociology

In sociological research, the structural aspect of sexism is emphasized (see also structural functionalism , social status ). Here it is said that sexism is culturally determined, institutionally anchored and internalized individually . It is thought, belief, opinion and acting as a social practice that privileges men and subjugates women. This devalues ​​the actions of women and women (and men) are assigned certain roles. This approach emphasizes the mechanisms of a discriminatory social system, here the Patriarchate , and examines the entanglements of sexism with other critical forms of domination of certain groups such as the racism , the classism or age discrimination (English: "ageism") handicapism or speciesism .

Post feminism

In post-feminist discourse, sexism is viewed as expecting or requiring others to embody gender norms . Related to this approach are the discussions about heterosexist discrimination against gays, lesbians and people who do not fit into the current gender concept.

Definition of terms

Differentiation from sexual harassment

Sexism is an “umbrella term” for a “wide range of individual phenomena”, including “ sexual harassment ”.

Sexual harassment always referred to specific, on sexuality -related behavior that is undesirable and a person unwell and in her by the dignity feels hurt. Sexism, on the other hand, is a broader term and also includes beliefs and attitudes .

"While sexism describes the social construction of differences between women and men and thus forms the ideological basis for discrimination on the basis of sex, sexual harassment as gender-related, inappropriate behavior represents a possible form of resulting sexist behavior."

While legal action can be taken against sexual harassment in some areas (work place, school) or under certain conditions, this is usually hardly possible with sexism.

In everyday language "there is often a lack of clarity about how the terms 'sexism' and 'sexual harassment' differ, so that they are often incorrectly used synonymously ."

Lack of demarcation from gynophobia, misandry, misogyny, misogyny, anti-feminism

A scientific discussion and systematic attempts to distinguish the term concepts gynophobia , misogyny , Misandrie , misogyny , sexism and anti-feminism , there are hardly any. Often only one of the terms is used; Occasionally, attempts are made to delimit individual terms from one another in terms of content or degree; sometimes they are also used synonymously.

Example:

“Extreme forms of sexism against women are called misogyny or misogyny . Misogynia, or its weaker form, gynophobia (fear of women or femininity), is usually ideological or psychological . It manifests itself in sexist attitudes and practices and can be institutionalized in political or social structures. Unlike anti-feminism , which is often used synonymously , but refers to attitudes towards the emancipation of women, misogyny implies an inherent inferiority of women and thus represents essentialist ideas of femininity. "

- International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences

Causes and effects or goals

The causes of sexism lie in unconscious or conscious fears about the questioning of male gender identities or uncertainties regarding male gender identities as well as in fears of the destabilization of the hierarchical gender orders based on it . Because male gender identities are not only elementary identity components in every society, but the basis of all hierarchical gender orders of superordinate competing masculinity ( hegemonic masculinity ) and subordinate competing femininity . In this respect, sexism is part of gender orders , the social order structure of which is scientifically researched and described with the help of different conceptual concepts such as gender roles (stereotypes) , gender , doing gender or gender habitus .

In order to counteract fears, sexism serves as an unconsciously or consciously employed means of exercising power, with the help of which power imbalances or dependency relationships are gendered and maintained. So the effect of sexism is to "subjugate people of a certain sex". If this effect is consciously striven for, the exercise of power over sexism is not only an effect, but at the same time a conscious goal .

While the phenomenon of sexism is explained in encyclopedias, dictionaries and handbooks, the causes are usually not shown. Since the 1970s, the cause-and-effect relationship has been described more and more precisely in the specialist literature - also together with other phenomena of group-related fears and resulting discrimination such as racism , anti-Semitism , homophobia , xenophobia, etc. (see also research approach group-related enmity ).

History of the concept of sexism and its exploration

Term precursor

The concept of "sexism" has some precursors in terms of content. They use a comparable basic theoretical position (not the term itself).

In 1907 the women's rights activist Käthe Schirmacher diagnosed a “gender prejudice in language”. She referred to this as "sexualism":

“With man's own subjectivity, man has set himself, his advantages, faults and achievements as the norm, the normal, the 'ought to be', the ideal: the masculine was, in language as elsewhere, the decisive factor. Hence the cult of man in all languages ​​of the world. [...] After all, we will not get sexualism, gender prejudice out of language anytime soon, only a conscious counteraction can help [...] "

- Käthe Schirmacher :

The philosopher Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) argued similarly in her 1949 treatise The Other Sex . De Beauvoir coined the term “sex” and established some of the central feminist theorems , for example that one is not born as a “woman” but is socialized as such , or that the idea of ​​the “eternally feminine” is a vehicle of oppression by patriarchy .

Origin of the term in the USA

The term “sexism” appeared in English for the first time in the 1960s ( sexism ), with it the process of naturalization of social processes ( biologism ) was described: a mode of action that the term racism ( racism ) also aims at the term "sexism" borrowed. With sexism not only individual prejudices, but also institutionalized discrimination were named. In a programmatic publication by the Southern Female Rights Union in the late 1960s, it says:

“The division of labor and resources by sex constitutes a system of SEXISM, which is the oldest form of institutionalized oppression. [...] To destroy sexism, we must fight, as females, collectively for the unity of humankind. "

"The division of work and resources according to biological gender constitutes a system of SEXISM, which is the oldest form of institutionalized oppression [...] To destroy sexism, we have to fight, as women, collectively for the unity of humanity."

- Southern Female Rights Union Program for Female Liberation, New Orleans

The first scientific examination of sexism took place in the USA in the early 1970s. While this term was still largely unknown in Germany in the 1970s and was only used in feminist and popular science literature, it has already found its way into academic textbooks in the United States. When Waltraud Schoppe said in a speech in the German Bundestag in 1983, “We call on you all to stop everyday sexism here in the Bundestag” (DIE ZEIT, June 15, 1984), it led to amusement.

In 1976 the term “sexism” became known in Germany through the extensive book by Marielouise Janssen-Jurreit with the title of the same name. She defined sexism as the total oppression of women.

“Sexism was always more than what is called 'the disadvantage of women' in the insignificant suppleness of political rhetoric or what sociologists trivialize as 'traditional roles'. Sexism has always been the exploitation, mutilation, annihilation, domination, persecution of women. Sexism is subtle and deadly at the same time and means the negation of the female body, violence towards the woman's ego, carelessness towards her existence, the expropriation of her thoughts, the colonization and usufruct of her body, the deprivation of one's own language up to the control of her conscience, the restriction of their freedom of movement, the withholding of their contribution to the history of the human species. "

- Marie-Louise Janssen-Jurreit

1980s: sexism as an oppressive relationship

In the 1980s, discussions about “sexism” increasingly emphasized the interaction with other forms of oppression such as classism and racism . In the course of the discussion about the various conditions of oppression, a distinction was made between prejudice and oppression :

“The words hurt through the threat of violence hidden behind them. It is not the sexist images and words that are so bad in themselves, it is the power over women, the threat of violence against women, that gives sexist language its explosive power. When Surinamese children call Dutch children 'white asses' and hear 'nigger pigs' in response, the prejudices behind it can also be 'racist', but they do not have the threat of power. "

- Anja Meulenbelt

Today, intersectionality research (from intersection : overlap, intersection, intersection) no longer just adds up the oppressive relationships, but examines the effects of the intersections of the oppressive relationships such as sexism, racism, hostility towards the disabled .

Since the 1990s: changing prejudice research

While the term sexism is still viewed today in relation to oppression as oppression of women , at the level of gender stereotypes in research there has been an expansion of the term to include gender , which also includes sexism towards men . The prejudice -Research works with standardized questionnaires, which have undergone a transformation in the 1990s. In the 1970s, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) was used to determine what is now traditional sexism or open sexism . More recent studies on this first and very frequently used questionnaire revealed, however, that “the scale values ​​at the egalitarian, non-sexist pole of the AWS occurred very frequently”. It was doubted that the AWS could adequately measure attitudes towards the role of women in society that have changed over time. With this measurement method, the denial of continued discrimination against women could not be determined, which led to new questionnaires that now (mid-1990s) understood sexism as modern sexism or neosexism .

Modern sexism and neosexism

With the new research approach, it has become increasingly clear since the 1990s that sexism is no longer openly shown in its traditional form, but is also subject to modernization. Modern sexism is veiled and manifests itself “in more subtle and hidden forms of discrimination”.

  • Denial of continued discrimination,
  • Resistance to supposed privileges of women,
  • Rejection of demands for equal treatment.

The conflict between egalitarian values ​​and negative emotions towards women is called neosexism.

Modern sexism and neosexism provide ideological justifications for existing inequality: the status quo is perceived as fair and a reduction in gender inequality is consequently prevented.

Ambivalent Sexism: Well-meaning and hostile sexism

In research since the 1990s, a distinction has been made between well-meaning (benevolent) sexism and hostile (hostile) sexism , the interaction of which is known as ambivalent sexism . The gender researcher Thomas Eckes cites as examples of hostile sexism statements such as “Women are offended too quickly” or “Most women do not even see what men do for them.”
While the structural power of men stirs up hostile sexism, favor the asymmetrical one Dependence on men and women in close interpersonal relationships leads to benevolent sexism. Examples of benevolent sexism are statements like women should be cared for and protected by men. or Compared to men, women have better moral feelings. Eckes characterizes the sexist character of Benevolence (formerly also: chivalry , gentlemanliness ) with the following features:

  1. Rewarding women in fulfilling their traditional roles (if the expected role is violated , punishment is given in the form of rejection);
  2. Limitation to social situations with clearly defined gender-typical roles, for example as dominance of men and subordination of women in a hierarchically structured professional environment;
  3. Part of an emphatically women-friendly self-portrayal by men, but only in relation to certain types of women such as housewives, not career women.

Sexism as a component of group-related misanthropy

Public opinion on the position of women in the Federal Republic of Germany 2003 
Voice … ... not at all ... rather not ... rather to ... completely closed Number of respondents
Discrimination against women is still a problem in Germany 8.6% 36.6% 35.2% 19.9% 2690
The current employment policy disadvantages women 7.7% 34.6% 35.6% 22.1% 2605
Equality between men and women has been achieved in Germany 4.5% 34.5% 41.7% 19.2% 2685

A study (2001) based on modern sexism examined women and men as victims of interpersonal sexism. It was shown that men are primarily affected by role ascriptions. In contrast to the women, however, none of the men surveyed stated that they felt seriously affected by being reduced to a (gender-specific) object status .

Further surveys in Germany

In 2006, the study “Vom Rand zum Mitte” on behalf of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung , in which 2,620 women (54%) and 2,252 men (46%) were surveyed, wrote that the explicitly sexist attitude towards women in West Germany was greater than in East Germany. For example, 43% in West Germany, but only 25% in East Germany, support the statement: “Women should think more about their role as wife and mother”.

The research project of the University of Bielefeld “ Group-related misanthropy ” recorded annually from 2002 to 2012, besides other devaluations of groups, also the devaluation of women under the keyword “classic sexism”. This phenomenon related to gender-discriminatory notions. In the opinion of 28.5% of those questioned, women should return to the “traditional” roles of wives and mothers in 2007 (2002: 29.4%; 2004: 29.3%); In 2007, 18% agreed with the statement that it should be more important for a woman to help her husband with his career than to make a career of her own (2004: 15.6%).

With reference to women in politics , the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung in 2014 addressed the extent of threats and harassment, such as those directed against individual politicians in Germany, especially on the Internet , but also in personally addressed correspondence and by telephone.

literature

Web links

Wiktionary: sexism  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

See also

Evidence and Notes

  1. ↑ Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism. 3. Edition. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, Wiesbaden 2010, p. 183.
  2. ↑ a b c d e Julia C. Becker: Subtle manifestations of sexism. In: APUZ. February 9, 2014, accessed October 17, 2017 .
  3. ^ Daniel J. Siegel: Pauline Leet - She Defined “Sexist” . In: The Wise Legacy: How One Professor Transformed the Nation . 2015, p. 54-57 .
  4. ^ Fred R. Shapiro: Historical Notes on the Vocabulary of the Women's Movement . In: American Speech . tape 60 , no. 1 , 1985, pp. 3-16 .
  5. ^ Pauline M. Leet: Women and the Undergraduate. In: Student-Faculty Forum at Franklin and Marshall College . Lancaster (PA) November 18, 1965.
  6. ↑ Caroline Bird: On Being Born Female . In: Vital Speeches of the Day . November 15, 1965, p. 88-91 .
  7. ↑ Ulf Schleth: Explain feminism to me. In: taz die tageszeitung , May 19, 2020, Link aims at the extended version in the author's blog.
  8. ↑ Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: of roles, identities and prejudices, chapter: Sexism. In: Ruth Becker, Beate Kortendieck (Hrsg.): Handbook women and gender research. Theory, methods, empiricism. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2010, p. 170 f.
  9. ↑ sex. In: Duden. Retrieved October 18, 2017 .
  10. ↑ -ism. In: Duden. Retrieved October 18, 2017 .
  11. ↑ Luise F. Pusch: Gender - who needs it and what for? In: The eggs of the head of state: And other glosses . Göttingen 2008, p. 43 .
  12. ↑ a b c Mechthild Gomolla: Institutional Discrimination. New approaches to an old problem . In: Ulrike Hormel, Albert Scherr (ed.): Discrimination. Basics and research results . Wiesbaden 2010, p. 61 .
  13. ↑ Carol Rambo Ronai, Barbara A. Zsembik, Joe R. Feagin: Everyday Sexism in the Third Millennium . New York 1997.
  14. ↑ Janet K. Swim, Lauri L. Hyers, Laurie L. Cohen, Melissa J. Ferguson: Everyday Sexism: Evidence for Its Incidence, Nature, and Psychological Impact. From Three Daily Diary Studies . In: Journal of Social Issues . tape 57 , no. 1 , 2001, p. 31-53 .
  15. ↑ Abigail Powell, Katherine JC Sang: Everyday Experiences of Sexism in Male-dominated Professions: A Bourdieusian Perspective . In: Sociology . tape 49 , no. 5 , 2015, p. 919-936 .
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  17. ^ A b Frank N. Magill: International encyclopedia of sociology . London 1995, p. 1541 .
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  19. ^ A b Elliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Timothy D. Wilson: Social Psychology . Munich 2004, p. 513 .
  20. ↑ Search term everyday sexism (2004 to today). (No longer available online.) In: Google Trends. Archived from the original on February 19, 2018 ; accessed on February 19, 2018 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / trends.google.de
  21. ↑ Ines Pohlkamp: Queer-deconstructive perspectives on sexuality and gender . In: Friederike Schmidt, Anne-Christin Schondelmayer, Ute B. Schröder (Eds.): Self-determination and recognition of sexual and gender diversity. Realities of life, research results and educational modules . Wiesbaden 2015, p. 75 .
  22. ↑ Search term everyday sexism (Feb 2017 - Feb 2018). (No longer available online.) In: Google Trends. Archived from the original on February 19, 2018 ; accessed on February 18, 2018 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / trends.google.de
  23. ↑ Search term everyday sexism. In: Google News. Retrieved February 18, 2018 .
  24. ↑ Search term everyday sexism. In: Genios media database. Retrieved February 18, 2018 .
  25. ↑ a b Ina Kerner: Differences and Power: On the Anatomy of Racism and Sexism . Frankfurt a. M. 2009, p. 169 .
  26. ↑ a b c d Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices . In: Ruth Becker, Beate Kortendiek (Hrsg.): Handbook women and gender research: theory, methods, empiricism . Wiesbaden 2010, p. 179, 183 .
  27. ^ Elliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Timothy D. Wilson: Social Psychology . 4th edition. Munich 2004, p. 513 f .
  28. ↑ Pierre Bourdieu: The male rule . In: Irene Dölling, Beate Krais (ed.): A daily game. Gender construction in social practice . Frankfurt am Main 1997, p. 169 .
  29. ↑ Iris Six-Materna: Sexism . Pp. 121–130 in: Lars-Eric Petersen, Bernd Six (Ed.): Stereotypes, prejudices and social discrimination. Theories, Findings, and Interventions . Weinheim, Basel: Beltz Verlag. 2008.
  30. ↑ Todd D. Nelson: The Psychology of Prejudice . 2nd edition, Pearson, Boston 2006
  31. ^ Ronny Werner, Gernot von Collani: [ Archived copy ( Memento from May 18, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) A German scale on ambivalent - sexist attitudes (hostility and benevolence) towards men (ASEM). ]
  32. ↑ Thomas Eckes, Iris Six-Materna: Denial of Discrimination: A Scale to Record Modern Sexism. In: Journal of Social Psychology. 29, pp. 224-238.
  33. ↑ Peter Glick, Susan Fiske: Hostile and Benevolent Sexism Measuring Ambivalent Sexist Attitudes Toward Women , Psychology of Women Quarterly, March 1997, Vol. 21 no. 1, pp. 119-135. doi: 10.1111 / j.1471-6402.1997.tb00104.x .
  34. ↑ Glick / Fiske eta .: Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 79/2000, p. 763.
  35. ↑ Gender equality website of the Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences: What is sexism? ( Memento from February 12, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
  36. ↑ Eva Fels, Dagmar Fink: What is sexism?
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  54. ↑ Michael Kimmel: Angry White Men. American Masculinity at the End of an Era . New York 2013.
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  57. ↑ Nora Räthzel: Theories of Racism: Gender Relations and Feminism. In: Ruth Becker, Beate Kortendieck (Hrsg.): Handbook women and gender research. Theory, methods, empiricism. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2004.
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  59. ^ In: Leslie B. Tanner: Voices from Women's Liberation. New York January 1971, p. 114 f. (Emphasis in the original)
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  62. ↑ Hessischer Rundfunk, How Waltraud Schoppe shocked the Bundestag 30 years ago Archived copy ( memento of the original from July 16, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.hr-online.de
  63. ↑ Florence Hervé , Elly Steinmann , Renate Wurms: Das Weiberlexikon. From A for Actor to Z for Cycle. Munich 1995, p. 443.
  64. ^ Marie-Louise Janssen-Jurreit: Sexism. About the abortion of women. Munich 1976, p. 702.
  65. ↑ Anja Meulenbelt : dividing lines. About sexism, racism and classism. Rowohlt, Reinbek near Hamburg 1998.
  66. ↑ Angela Davis : Racism and Sexism. Black women and class struggle in the US. Elefantenpress, Berlin 1982.
  67. ^ Arthur Brittan, Mary Maynard: Sexism, Racism and Oppression. Oxford 1984.
  68. ↑ Anja Meulenbelt : dividing lines. About sexism, racism and classism. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1998, p. 41.
  69. ^ A b Janet T. Spence, Eugene D. Hahn: The Attitudes Towards Women Scale and Attitude Change in College Students. In: Psychology of Women Quarterly , Volume 21, 1997, pp. 17-34. Quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 183.
  70. ↑ Janet K. Swim, Kathryn J. Akin, Wayne S. Hall, Barbara A. Hunter: Sexism and Racism: Oldfashioned and Modern Prejudices. In: Journal of Personality and Scial Psychology. 68, (1995) pp. 199-214.
  71. ↑ Francine Tougas, Rupert Brown, Ann M. Beaton, Stéphane Joly: Neosexism. Plus ca change, plus c'est pareil. In: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 21 (1995), pp. 842-849.
  72. ↑ a b c Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 184.
  73. ↑ Kirsten Endrikat: Quite normal sexism. Lovely constriction in a roller corset. In: Wilhelm Heitmeyer (ed.): German conditions. Volume 2, edition suhrkamp, ​​2003, p. 124.
  74. ↑ The statements in the table are taken from the scale for recording modern sexism : Thomas Eckes, Iris Six-Materna: Denial of Discrimination: A scale for recording modern sexism. , Volume 29, 1998, pp. 224-238. In: Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie , Volume 29, quoted from: Thomas Eckes: Gender stereotypes: Of roles, identities and prejudices. In: Ruth Becker: Handbook women and gender research: Theory, methods, empiricism . 3rd edition, Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 2010, p. 178.
  75. ↑ Janet K. Swim, Lauri L. Hyers, Laurie L. Cohen, Melissa J. Ferguson: Everyday Sexism: Evidence for Its Incidence, Nature, and Psychological Impact From Three Daily Diary Studies - Statistical Data Included. In: Journal of Social Issues. Spring 2001. (online)  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / people.uwec.edu  
  76. ↑ Oliver Decker, Elmar Brähler : From the edge to the middle - right-wing extremist attitudes and their influencing factors in Germany. (PDF; 749 kB) 2006.
  77. ↑ Decker, Brähler: From the edge to the middle. 2006, p. 30.
  78. ↑ Decker, Brähler: From the edge to the middle. 2006, p. 67 f.
  79. ↑ Decker, Brähler: From the edge to the middle. 2006, p. 69 f.
  80. ↑ Sexism on the Internet. Go home you old shit ... FAZ, September 6, 2014, accessed on September 14, 2014 .