Grace (theology)

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The word grace ( Hebrew חֵן ḥen, חֶסֶד ḥesed, Greek χάρις cháris, Latin gratia) expresses a relationship. The term unites various meanings, because the Hebrew and Greek terms can be translated with the German words courtesy, grace, gift and gift, but also with benevolence or favor that is shown to people - free of charge. Since there is no obligation for this behavior, every show of grace is per se an undeserved gift of grace.

In Christianity, grace is one of the basic attributes of God. The unconditional grace that God gives to believers or to all of humanity forms the core of the Christian message. As the central concept of the Christian-Biblical knowledge of God, grace describes a relationship between God and people. The theological talk about grace is always linked to questions about sin, suffering and free will. Closely related theological terms are salvation, mercy , goodness and righteousness of God.

There is no uniform concept of grace with regard to different religions, since the concept of grace in different religions must always be understood in different contexts. Therefore, at best, an analogous consideration with regard to the use in Christianity is possible.

Christianity

Biblical foundation

Old testament

The Hebrew words חֵן ( ḥen - favor, grace, affection, kindness; grace, beauty) and חֶסֶד ( ḥesed - goodness, love, kindness, benevolence, mercy, favor), which occur in multiple contexts in the Old Testament , are mostly used with grace in German editions of the Bible , Translated as goodness or grace. Grace is described as a relationship event with God, which is defined more precisely through terms such as covenant, liberation as well as prayer and outpouring of the spirit. Other terms are: justice, mercy, loyalty.

In the language of prayer, the verb חנן ( ḥanan ) is often used - both in the Qal ("be gracious") and in the Hitpael ("to implore mercy") - when gracious attention is expected from God. The request "Be gracious to me!" Is particularly frequent, especially in the introduction to prayer ( Ps 4.2  EU ; 6.3 EU ; 9.14 EU ; 26.11 EU ; 30.11 EU ; 56.2 EU ; 86 , 3 EU ; 119.29 + 58 + 132 EU ). In the Aaronic blessing , too , the verb is connected with God's turning to his face ( Num 6,25  EU ). The adjective חַנּ֑וּן ( ḥannun ) "merciful, gracious" (almost exclusively related to YHWH), often in connection with רַח֖וּם ( raḥum ) "merciful" (before, less often after) a liturgical formula: Yahweh is "gracious and merciful, patient and rich in goodness (חֶ֥סֶד ḥesed ) ”. It occurs first in Ex 34.6  EU , also in Joel 2.13  EU ; Jonah 4.2  EU ; Ps 86.15  EU ; 103.8 EU ; 111.4 EU ; 116.5 EU ; 145.8 EU ; Neh 9.17 + 31  EU ; 2 Chr 30.9  EU .

Even more important for the idea of ​​grace in the OT is the root חֶסֶד ( ḥesed ) with almost 250 occurrences. It can denote a gracious act of God, but also of humans, which often reacts to a bitter call. It is disputed whether it originally referred to a legal or contractual relationship or whether it arises exclusively from the love and goodness of the giver. In the idea of ​​the covenant , both are combined: God creates a covenant relationship with people for the sake of grace, from which follows an obligation of loyalty and fidelity for both sides.

New Testament

The corresponding central term in the New Testament is the Greek word χάρις ( cháris ). However, this Greek word has a much broader range of meanings: grace and loveliness, but also favor, grace, benevolence and gracious care and the demonstration of this favor and care: act of grace, gift of grace; finally also: thanks. Gifts of benefactors are deeds of cháris .

The vast majority of occurrences of the term in the NT are attributable to the letters of the apostle Paul , who interprets his calling and his apostolate as a gift from God ( Gal 1.15  EU ; 1. Corinthians 15.10  EU ); ( Romans 13.3  EU ; Romans 15.15  EU ) and sees as an example of the gifts of grace that God bestows on believers (charisms; Romans 12.6  EU ). The Pauline understanding of grace found its specific expression in the doctrine of justification elaborated primarily in Romans , which was later resumed by Martin Luther using the formula sola gratia . Here Paul contrasts righteousness based on faith in Christ with righteousness based on works under the laws ( Romans 3: 23–24  EU ).

Old church

The East

In the Greek-speaking East, the doctrine of grace was developed in connection with key words such as rebirth , enlightenment , spirit communication and acceptance into the childship of God , vision of God and deification . A “ synergistic ” view prevailed, (working together), which saw salvation conditioned by a coexistence of human and divine activity, in which God's action is the decisive first step. In addition to redemption and the transformation of man through God, the ability to live a righteous life was often seen as a gift of grace, so that moralism and a consciousness of redemption were connected. In Gregory of Nyssa , the distinction between grace and nature is (Greek. Physis ), where God "energies" ( energeiai ) exercise than the projection of the divine nature in the world, the ultimate effect on the human will.

The Greek Ancient Church of the East has no doctrine of original sin that can be compared to that of Augustine . Therefore it does not know any doctrine of grace in the narrower sense, because it does not explicitly distinguish between saving action and grace. For God's whole saving act is seen as grace. Accordingly, it develops the doctrine of grace in connection with the doctrine of the Trinity and the doctrine of the Spirit. Because the tradition of the ancient Greek Church is strongly pneumatological , the work of the Holy Spirit is seen not least through the liturgy in the sense of the deification of man.

The West

The doctrine of grace of Augustine of Hippo , who closely linked the Pauline doctrine of justification with the question of free will and original sin , was formative for the Latin West . In dealing with the synergistic doctrine of grace of Pelagius , which is based on an optimistic image of man , he emphasized that man cannot overcome the tendency to sin due to original sin ( restricted free will ) and is therefore dependent on restoring grace. Only when they are redeemed can Christians follow the path to good in following Jesus; Freedom thus becomes a gift from God. By the condemnation of Pelagianism at the Council of Carthage (418) and the Semipelagianism on the Council of Orange (529), this view has been conducting for the Western Church.

middle Ages

The Scholastics drew on Augustine and brought another conceptual differentiation of the doctrine of grace. Anselm von Canterbury taught in his doctrine of satisfaction that it was only through Christ's voluntary sacrifice on the cross that the prerequisite was created for God to be able to give grace and mercy to man. Thomas Aquinas addressed grace in connection with the longing for God's fellowship and distinguished uncreated grace ( gratia increata - existing in God himself and without a temporal beginning) and created grace ( gratia creata - a supernatural gift or effect of God given by God and with a temporal beginning) towards humans. The courteous grace ( gratia praeveniens ), which God gives without claim or merit of man, thus becomes the basic requirement for justification. As the first grace ( gratia prima , gratia gratis data ) it brings about the faith that lets people want what is good, which is in turn supported by the following grace ( gratia subsequens , gratia cooperans ). In this way man can acquire merit and become pleasing to God ( gratia gratum faciens ).

reformation

Martin Luther renewed the doctrine of grace in connection with his new understanding of justification, which he developed since the lectures on the Psalms (1513–1515) and the Letter to the Romans (1515/16). The idea of ​​the substitution of Christ is its systematic core. “Grace”, understood as God's favor (“favor Dei”), is rediscovered as a relational event: Through mercy , sin is not added to those who believe in Christ for Christ's sake, but rather the alien righteousness of Christ is counted as their own. Here grace is not understood as a divine force working in humans, but as God's power that remains outside of the human being (WA 3,117,6f). By accepting the gospel of Christ's salvation act, which came about through grace ( sola gratia ) alone, justification comes through faith ( sola fide ) alone . Luther rejected the idea of ​​sanctifying grace ( gratia habitualis ), which works as God's power in people. Instead of the concept of grace, the gracious God himself and the act of salvation that took place in Christ become the core of the Lutheran understanding of grace, which is consistently Christ- centric ( solus christus ).

Council of Trent

The Council of Trent essentially confirmed the theology of grace developed by Thomas Aquinas . In contrast to the ideas of the Reformation, it took up the doctrine of habitual grace in order to underline the real changing presence of divine grace in believers. In this way grace is witnessed as a force which is both a precondition and a consequence of good works. The doctrine that free will was extinguished by original sin is condemned , but also that the human being can earn eternal life through his natural free will without grace .

Modern times

Roman Catholic Church

In today's understanding of faith and life of the Roman Catholic Church, grace is a key concept for the believed relationship between God and man and the divine saving action in favor of man. The distinction between uncreated grace (God himself in his love) and created grace (man in the way that God's affection is effective on him) is important in Catholic theology. The freedom of man and the possible meritorious participation of man are emphasized. While the writings of the Council of Trent in the West were based on the doctrine of grace of Thomas Aquinas, the modern concept of freedom breaks this theological system and is a challenge for the transmission of faith today. “ In so far as God enters into a dialogical relationship with man, his grace does not impose itself on him, but is a call to the person who is open to him and able to answer. “So in his nature man is no longer related to participation in God.

For Henri de Lubac , man's longing for God is the key to a modern theology of grace. When God gives himself, God and man are related to one another. The relational concept of grace comes to the fore and becomes the measure of human freedom, because this inner freedom opens up the meaning and goal of his being to man. God has always worked and does not subsequently enter into a gracious relationship with humans.

The Catholic theologian Karl Rahner overcomes the theory that grace is something external to man. Grace appears to him as something subjective, namely, immediacy to God. Because man wants to grow into the mystery of God. What is new here is the view that God is the horizon of freedom and no longer the gracious giver of freedom. The grace of God thus becomes an authorization for right freedom.

In the Roman Catholic understanding, the believer turns to God in the sacrament of confession. God forgives sinners through an authorized priest who is the representative of Jesus Christ. For, according to the Catholic understanding, only God - through someone authorized to perform sacramental service in the name of God - can forgive a person his sins.

The basic dimension of liberation theology in Latin America is grace theological and spiritual. The liberation of the poor is to be viewed in analogy to liberation and the salvation work on the people of Israel . The church goes to the poor and thus follows its original destiny, so that the kingdom of God is given meaning in historicity. The feminist theology of women theologians in Latin America ties in with the spiritual and grace theological orientation of liberation theology, but interprets it as liberation in everyday life, from the great events in history to liberation in everyday life. Feminist theology criticizes an understanding of sin and grace that makes people unfree.

The term grace is increasingly being dispensed with today (in sermons) and this is being replaced by terms such as “hand of God”, “love of God”, “salvation” or “liberation through God's love for man”.

Protestantism

Law and grace motif on the central part of the Cranach Altar in Weimar

In Lutheran Orthodoxy , based on the terminology of Philipp Melanchthon , a step model of justification was developed, which consisted of iustificatio ( justice ), vocatio (calling), illuminatio ( enlightenment ), regeneratio ( rebirth ) and sanctificatio ( sanctification ). This jeopardized the unity of justice and justice that Luther emphasized. With the distinction between conversion (conversio) and justification (iustificatio) that emerges in the formula of the Agreement , conversion becomes the place in which man grasps grace in Christ, which justifies, renews, sanctifies, gives birth and gives new life.

Huldrych Zwingli's theocentric approach was decisive for the Reformed tradition . He saw grace primarily as a quality of God through which he turned to created nature, especially to created human beings. In the 17th century federal theology developed from this , according to which God chose the created human being to be his counterpart and endowed it with the image of God . Only then is the covenant fellowship with God (as “the innermost core and star of the entire revealed truth ”) possible. At the end of the 16th century, the Reformed Orthodoxy distinguished between two covenants: After the breach of the Werkbund, God established a new covenant of grace for the redemption of humanity through an intra-Trinitarian pact between the father and the son .

Orthodox churches

In orthodox theology, " deification " is used instead of justification . On the basis of the palamitic distinction between God's being and energies, the participation of humans in the healing process is often affirmed. This is reflected as a problem in current ecumenical dialogues .

Other religions

In Judaism , grace is a fundamental quality of an almighty God, which he grants to his chosen people Israel and it denotes the redeeming act of God. The rabbis understood grace on the one hand as " gemilut chasadim " (charity, help without self-interest), on the other hand as an act that is only done for its own sake.

In Islam , God sends his prophet in an act of grace who receives the Koran and "The Merciful" (الرحمن al-Raḥmān) is the call with which all suras in the Koran, with the exception of the 9th sura, begin. The Christian dogma is alien to Islam that the person indebted by original sin ( original sin ) is absolutely in need of God's grace. Rather, Islamic theology focuses on God's care for misguided people.

The different religious currents within Hinduism interpret grace in different ways. In non-theistic Buddhism , liberation ( nirvana ) from the cycle of suffering and rebirth does not depend on supernatural grace.

literature

in order of appearance

  • Emil Brunner : Nature and Grace. To the conversation with Karl Barth . JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Tübingen 1934.
  • Karl Barth : The message of God's free grace . Thesis 6 of the Barmer Declaration. Evangelical publishing house, Zollikon-Zurich.
  • Johann Auer : The Development of the Doctrine of Grace in High School . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 1951.
  • Artur Michael Landgraf : Dogma history of early scholasticism. The doctrine of grace . Pustet, Regensburg 1952.
  • Gisbert Greshake : Freedom given. Introduction to the doctrine of grace . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 1977, ISBN 3-451-17963-6 .
  • Romano Guardini : Freedom - Grace - Fate. Three chapters on the interpretation of existence . Kösel-Verlag, Munich 1979; 8th edition, 2018: Matthias Grünewald Verlag, Ostfildern / Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn, ISBN 978-3-7867-3163-4 (Matthias Grünewald), ISBN 978-3-506-79226-6 (Schöningh).
  • Henning Graf Reventlow , Robert Goldenberg, Eugen Ruckstuhl, Wolf-Dieter Hauschild , Klaus Otte : Grace: I. Old Testament, II. Judaism, III. New Testament, IV. Dogma History (Old Church up to the Reformation), V. Modern Age / Systematic-Theological. In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE), Vol. 13, 1984, pp. 459-511.
  • Richard Schenk : The grace of perfect finitude: on the transcendental theological interpretation of Thomanian anthropology . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 1989, ISBN 3-451-21153-X .
  • Gerhard Ludwig Müller (edit.): Gnadenlehre (= texts on theology, department dogmatics, volume 7.1). Styria, Graz 1996
  • Hermann Spieckermann : Grace. Biblical Perspectives . In: Ders., God's love for Israel: Studies on the theology of the Old Testament (= research on the Old Testament . Volume 33). Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2004, ISBN 3-16-148517-3 . Pp. 20-33.
  • Ulli Roth : Doctrine of grace . Schöningh, Paderborn 2013, ISBN 978-3-506-77647-1 .
  • Lenka Karfíková, Vít Hušek, Ladislav Chvátal (eds.): Doctrine of grace in writing and patristics (= Handbook of the history of dogma , Volume 3: Christology, Soteriology, Ecclesiology, Mariology, Doctrine of Grace , Fascicle 5a). Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2016.
  • Johannes Nebel: On the development of the doctrine of grace in the 20th century . In: Forum Katholische Theologie , Vol. 32 (2016), pp. 127–151.
  • Jonathan Magonet : Grace and Justice in the Hebrew Bible . In: Junge Kirche 1/2017, pp. 7–11. ( PDF )

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Hermann Spieckermann :  Grace / Grace of God - II. Old Testament . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1024. "The decisive Hebrew words are the verb חנן / hnn» gracious «and the noun חֶסֶד / hæsæd» goodness, grace «."
  2. ↑ Dieter Singer :  Grace / Grace of God - III. New testament . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1025. "The noun grace (χάρις / cháris), together with its relatives, is one of the main theological concepts of the NT."
  3. ^ Risto Saarinen :  Grace / Grace of God - V. Systematic-theological . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1032.
  4. ↑ Michael von Brück : Grace - I. Religious History . In: Walter Kasper (Ed.): Lexicon for Theology and Church (LThK) . 3. Edition. tape 4 . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2009, ISBN 978-3-451-22100-2 , p. 761-763 (here: 763) .
  5. ↑ Art. חֵן In: Gesenius, 18th edition 2013 , p. 370.
  6. ↑ Art. חֶסֶד In: Gesenius, 18th ed. 2013 , p. 375f.
  7. ↑ The standard translation uses Huld as the German equivalent for חֶסֶד.
  8. ↑ F. Diedrich: Grace - II. Old Testament . In: Walter Kasper (Ed.): Lexicon for Theology and Church (LThK) . 3. Edition. tape 4 . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2009, ISBN 978-3-451-22100-2 , p. 763-765 (here: 763) .
  9. ↑ Art. חנן In: Gesenius, 18th ed. 2013 , p. 373.
  10. ↑ Hermann Spieckermann :  Grace / Grace of God - II. Old Testament . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1024.
  11. ↑ Art. חַנּ֑וּן In: Gesenius, 18th ed. 2013 , p. 371.
  12. ^ Henning Graf Reventlow :  Grace - I. Old Testament . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , pp. 460-461.
  13. ^ Henning Graf Reventlow:  Grace - I. Old Testament . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , pp. 461-462 .; Hermann Spieckermann:  Grace / Grace of God - II. Old Testament . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1024-1025 .; Christoph Stenschke: Grace. I. Biblical . In: Heinzpeter Hempelmann et al. (Ed.): ELThG² - Evangelical Lexicon for Theology and Congregation . 1st edition. tape 2 . SCM R.Brockhaus, Witten 2019, ISBN 978-3-417-26802-7 , pp. 665 .
  14. ↑ Art. Χάρις in: Bauer / Aland: Greek-German dictionary on the writings of the New Testament . Walter de Gruyter, 6th completely revised edition Berlin / New York 1988, Sp. 1750–1753.
  15. ↑ Dieter Singer :  Grace / Grace of God - III. New testament . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1025-1026 .; Chr. Stenschke: Grace . In: Heinzpeter Hempelmann, Uwe Swarat, Roland Gebauer, Wolfgang Heinrichs, Christoph Raedel, Peter Zimmerling (eds.): ELThG² - Evangelical Lexicon for Theology and Congregation . 1st edition. tape 2 . SCM R.Brockhaus, Witten 2019, ISBN 978-3-417-26802-7 , pp. 665 .
  16. ↑ Michael Theobald : Grace - IV. New Testament . In: Walter Kasper (Ed.): Lexicon for Theology and Church (LThK) . 3. Edition. tape 4 . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2009, ISBN 978-3-451-22100-2 , p. 766-772 (here: 768) .
  17. ↑ Wolf-Dieter Hauschild :  Grace - IV. Dogma History (Old Church until the Reformation) . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , pp. 476-480 .; Alister McGrath : Mercy. II. Theological history . In: Heinzpeter Hempelmann et al. (Ed.): ELThG² - Evangelical Lexicon for Theology and Congregation . 1st edition. tape 2 . SCM R.Brockhaus, Witten 2019, ISBN 978-3-417-26802-7 , II. Theological history, p. 669 .
  18. ↑ Sergius Heitz : Original sin and justification from an orthodox point of view. (pdf) In: Orthodox Library. Christian-Orthodox Information Center eV, accessed on July 12, 2020 .
  19. ↑ Wolf-Dieter Hauschild:  Grace - IV. Dogma History (Old Church until the Reformation) . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , pp. 480-485 .; Reinhold Rieger:  Grace / Grace of God - IV. Church history . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tuebingen 1999, Sp. 1027-1028.
  20. ^ Risto Saarinen :  Grace / Grace of God - V. Systematic-theological . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1033. "The distinction between uncreated and created grace leads in Aristotelian high scholasticism to a differentiated treatment of the human contribution to salvation, whereby the most diverse concepts of grace play a prominent role."; Ludwig Ott : The Doctrine of Grace Concept and Classification § 3. The Classification of Grace 1. Gratia increata - gratia creata. In: Outline of Catholic Dogmatics. catholicglauben.info - Herbert Böttcher, 1954, accessed on May 25, 2020 . ; Alister McGrath: Mercy. II. Theological history . In: Heinzpeter Hempelmann et al. (Ed.): ELThG² - Evangelical Lexicon for Theology and Congregation . 2nd Edition. tape 2 . SCM R.Brockhaus, Witten 2019, ISBN 978-3-417-26802-7 , pp. 670 . ; Reinhold Rieger:  Grace / Grace of God - IV. Church history . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1028-1029.
  21. ↑ Wolf-Dieter Hauschild:  Grace - IV. Dogma History . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , pp. 490-491 .; Reinhold Rieger:  Grace / Grace of God - IV. Church history . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1031. “In the Reformation, grace is no longer understood in terms of the relationship between ends and means, since these have proven to be unsuitable for determining the personal relationship between God and man . Grace does not serve to give man the ability to fulfill the law, but it is the righteousness of the transgressor, to whom the alien righteousness of Christ, who alone fulfilled the law, is granted. "
  22. ↑ Wolf-Dieter Hauschild:  Grace - IV. Dogma History . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , pp. 492-493 .; Alister McGrath: Mercy. II. Theological history . In: Heinzpeter Hempelmann et al. (Ed.): ELThG² - Evangelical Lexicon for Theology and Congregation . 2nd Edition. tape 2 . SCM R.Brockhaus, Witten 2019, ISBN 978-3-417-26802-7 , pp. 671 .
  23. ↑ Reinhold Rieger:  Grace / Grace of God - IV. Church history . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1028.
  24. ↑ Reinhold Rieger:  Grace / Grace of God - IV. Church history . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1030.
  25. ↑ E.-M. Faber: Grace - VI. Systematic-theological . In: Walter Kaspar (Ed.): Lexicon for Theology and Church (LThK) . 3. Edition. tape 4 . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2009, ISBN 978-3-451-22100-2 , p. 779–785 , here 780/781 .
  26. ^ Henri de Lubac: Freedom of grace . In: The Paradox of Man . tape 2 . Johannes, Einsiedeln 1971, p. 95 (transferred from HU von Balthasar).
  27. ^ Henri de Lubac: Freedom of grace . In: The Paradox of Man . tape 2 . Johannes, Einsiedeln 1971, p. 116 (transferred from HU by Balthasar).
  28. ↑ K. Rahner: Theology of Freedom . In: Writings . 2nd Edition. tape 6 . Benziger, Einsiedeln / Zurich / Cologne, p. 215-237 .
  29. ↑ M. Eckholt: Man in God's grace . Ed .: Cathedral School Würzburg. Würzburg 2019, p. 46-48 .
  30. ↑ G. Bitter: Grace - VIII. Practical-theological. In: Walter Kasper (Ed.): Lexicon for Theology and Church (LThK) . 3. Edition. tape 4 . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2009, ISBN 978-3-451-22100-2 , p. 787-789 .
  31. ^ Klaus Otte :  Grace - V. Modern Times / Systematic-Theological - 1.1. Lutheran tradition . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , pp. 496-497.
  32. ↑ Heinrich Heppe , Ernst Bizer : The dogmatics of the ev.-ref. Church. Neukirchen 1958, p. 224.
  33. ^ Klaus Otte:  Grace - V. Modern Age / Systematic-Theological - 1.2. Reformed tradition . In: Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). Volume 13, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1984, ISBN 3-11-008581-X , p. 497.
  34. ^ Risto Saarinen :  Grace / Grace of God - V. Systematic-theological . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1034-1035.
  35. ↑ Baruch Rabinowitz: mercy before justice? In: Jüdische Allgemeine - Pardon. Central Council of Jews in Germany KdöR., February 8, 2007, accessed on May 17, 2020 : “That is why grace is one of the greatest virtues of Judaism. God is merciful and gracious. In the Talmud even the word »Rachmana« - »grace« - is used as a synonym for »God«. "
  36. ↑ a b Giovanni Filoramo:  mercy / grace of God - I. Religion History . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 1999, Sp. 1023.
  37. ↑ Glossary. In: Current message. Central Council of Jews in Germany Kdö.R., November 17, 2013, accessed on July 11, 2020 : " Gemilut Chassadim : [Hebrew]" Charity, help without self-interest ". According to rabbinical Judaism, Gemilut Hassadim is one of the three pillars on which the world rests. It is a fundamental social norm of Jewish life: Visiting the sick, dressing and feeding the needy, bereavement support and burial and much more. It is not about money, but about personal commitment and can therefore be lived independently of one's own possessions. "
  38. ↑ Gerold Necker:  Grace / Grace of God - VII. Judaism . In: Religion Past and Present (RGG). 4th edition. Volume 2, Mohr-Siebeck, Tuebingen 1999, Sp. 1036-1037.
  39. ↑ Miklos Muranyi: Sura 5 verse 3 - The completion of Islam. In: Deutschlandfunk - Koran explained. Deutschlandradio KdöR, July 21, 2017, accessed on May 17, 2020 : "Today I have completed your religion for you and I have completed my grace and I was pleased that Islam is your religion."
  40. ↑ Stephan Guth: Grace . In: Ralf Elger (Ed.): Kleines Islam-Lexikon . 3rd revised edition. Verlag CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 113-114 .