Jād al-Haqq ʿAlī Jād al-Haqq

Jād al-Haqq ʿAlī Jād al-Haqq ( Arabic جاد الحق علي جاد الحق, DMG Ǧād al-Ḥaqq ʿAlī Ǧād al-Ḥaqq , b. April 5, 1917 in Batra, ad-Daqahliyya Governorate ; died March 15, 1996 in Cairo ), after the Egyptian pronunciation of Arabic often also Gad el-Hak or Gad al-Haq Ali Gad al-Haq was transcribed from 1978 to 1982 Grand Mufti of Egypt and from 1982 to 1996 Sheikh of the Azhar . During the 1980s he was the most important and respected official scholar of Egypt . His fatwa , in which he approved the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty of 1979, and his fatwa from 1981, in which he advocated female circumcision and defended it against criticism from the medical side, were of particularly far-reaching importance . Jād al-Haqq strove for a codification of the Sharia and in preparation for this project compiled a comprehensive collection of the legal opinions of the Egyptian fatwa office . From 1989 until his death he was in a permanent conflict with the reform-oriented Grand Mufti Muhammad Saiyid Tantāwī .

Professional background

Jad al-Haqq received traditional religious training. After learning to read and write in the local Koran school, he memorized the Koran and learned to recite it. In 1930 he entered the school of the Ahmad-al-Badawi Mosque in Tanta . In 1934 he graduated from primary school there. After a while he moved to the Azhar Institute in Cairo, where he graduated from secondary school in 1939. He then studied at the Sharia Faculty of the Azhar and obtained a ʿĀlimīya diploma there in 1943. After continuing his studies at the faculty with a specialization in Sharia case law, he received a second ʿĀlimīya diploma in 1945 with an ijāza for Sharia case law.

In January 1946 he got a job with the Sharia courts, which he practiced for several years. In August 1952 he was appointed fatwa advisor (amīn al-fatwā) in the Egyptian fatwa office , where he prepared legal opinions for the state mufti. A year later, in August 1954, he was appointed judge in the Sharia courts. After the Sharia courts were dissolved in 1956, he switched to the normal judicial service. Because of his erudition and his indifference to the political activism of the Muslim Brotherhood, he fitted well into the religious policy concept of Gamal Abdel Nasser , who appointed him in 1965 to the “Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs”, an intermediary organization outside the Azhar. Here Jād al-Haqq dealt with other scholars who had received a Western training with the fundamental questions in the modernization of Islamic law.

Jād al-Haqq was appointed court president in December 1971 and transferred to the Ministry of Justice in October 1974, where he initially worked as a court inspector and from March 1976 as an advisor to the court of appeal . On August 26, 1978, President Anwar al-Sadat Jād al-Haqq appointed him Grand Mufti of Egypt. From this position he supported the president's political course with public statements and fatwas. In 1980 he was admitted to the Academy for Islamic Studies . After the murder of Anwar al-Sadat in October 1981, he wrote a fatwa in which he refuted the manifesto that had served as legitimation for the assassins. The fatwa earned him the gratitude of the new leaders who appointed him Minister for Religious Foundations on January 4, 1982 . Only two months later, on March 17, 1982, President Husni Mubarak appointed him Sheikh al-Azhar.

During his tenure as Sheikh al-Islam, Jād al-Haqq took part in several Islamic conferences in Oman, Jordan and Saudi Arabia and traveled to numerous Islamic countries in Africa and Asia such as Nigeria, Senegal, Benin, Malaysia, Singapore and the Maldives . Jad al-Haqq was married and had three sons.

His fatwa activity

During his tenure as Grand Mufti and Shaykh al-Islām, Jād Haqq issued a total of 1,415 fatwas, of which he added 243 to his collection of “Islamic Reports from the Egyptian Fatwa Office” (al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya min Dār al-Iftāʾ al-Miṣrīya) recorded. Jad al-Haqq took his activities as a mufti very seriously. He was of the opinion that the mufti had the same position within the Islamic umma as the prophet Mohammed . He derived this from the hadith, according to which the ʿUlamā 'are the heirs of the prophets.

The fatwa on the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty

During his tenure as state mufti, Jad al-Haqq also issued fatwas on political issues on several occasions. For example, he published a fatwa sanctioning the Camp David Agreement and the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty of March 26, 1979. As early as June 14, 1979, he published a brief statement in which he endorsed the treaty. He then wrote a 15-page fatwa that was published in the official fatwa collection and dated November 26, 1979. Jād al-Haqq's argument is summarized at the beginning in the following points:

1. Islam is a religion of security and peace.
2. The enemy's turn to peace during war must be accepted.
3. Contracts ( muʿāhadāt ) between Muslims and non-Muslims are permissible and must be complied with, as long as something does not occur that makes the breach of these contracts necessary.
4. It is permissible for Muslims to seek peace as long as it advances their interests and keeps them away from harm.
5. Muslims are allowed to accept individual injustices as long as this avoids a major disadvantage.
6. The text of the peace agreement and its annexes in no way imply the loss of a right or the recognition of an occupation.
7. A small group of scholars do not have the right to pronounce judgments that do not adhere to what God has revealed and to resort to invective that is not justified by God's Sharia.
8. The Hudaibiya peace treaty was a blessing and a boon for Muslims. We are hopeful and optimistic that our present peace agreement with Israel is a success ( fatḥ ) with which we can regain the ground and protect the honor so that the beloved Jerusalem can peacefully return to the protection of Islam.

In his report, Jād al-Haqq deviated strongly from the classic jihad doctrine, according to which Muslims may only make peace if they feel that they are in a position of military inferiority. As a model for the treaty with Israel, he presented the treaties that Mohammed concluded with non-Muslims. He stressed the advantage the agreement brought for Muslims (liberation from Islamic territory conquered by Israel) and emphasized that the Arabs had recognized Israel as a state in previous treaties. At the end of his report, Jād al-Haqq calls on the religious scholars in the other Arab states to assume their responsibility and to influence their rulers in such a way that they also support the treaty.

With its legitimation of a permanent peace with Israel from an Islamic perspective, Jād al-Haqq's fatwa was a groundbreaking document. In the late 1980s, however, Jād al-Haqq changed his attitude towards Jews and Israel. After the outbreak of the First Intifada in 1987, he began to criticize Israel and its policies more strongly and became one of the leading opponents of the normalization of relations with Israel. In an interview with the Al-Wafd newspaper in 1995, he claimed that "the Jews never respected contracts and did not honor their obligations." In another fatwa, he banned Muslims from visiting Israel while it was occupying Jerusalem and the al-Aqsa mosque . When Israeli President Ezer Weizmann visited Egypt in 1995, Jad al-Haqq refused to attend the reception in his honor.

The fatwa on female circumcision

On January 29, 1981, Jād al-Haqq published a fatwa on female circumcision (ḫitān al-banāt) . The trigger for this fatwa was a request from a father of two daughters, aged six and two, who had asked Muslim doctors about female circumcision and received the answer that it was both mentally and physically harmful to them. He now wanted to know whether Islam ordered the circumcision of girls or whether that was just “a habit inherited from the ancients” (ʿāda mutawāriṯa ʿan al-aqdamīn) .

In his answer, Jad al-Haqq goes far. He first goes into the role model function of Abraham for the Muslims , which can be derived from Sura 16 : 123, and then cites the Hadith according to which Abraham circumcised himself at the age of 30. He then refers to the tradition related to Abraham, according to which there are five things that belong to the so-called Fitra , the emblematic criterion of membership of the Muslim community, namely circumcision, shaving the pubic hair, plucking the armpit hair, that Shortening the mustache and cutting the fingernails and toenails. Jād al-Haqq deliberately does not draw a clear line between male and female circumcision.

In a second step, Jād al-Haqq discusses the statements of the legal scholars of the various Sunni law schools about the circumcision of boys and girls. He comes to the conclusion that there is a consensus between them that circumcision (itān) is required for men and “reduction” (ḫifāḍ) by Sharia law for women . There are only differences in the classification of this obligation. For example, while Abū Hanīfa and Mālik ibn Anas only considered circumcision to be a Sunna obligation for both sexes , Ash-Shāfiʿī classified it as a Fard obligation for both sexes . By Ahmad ibn Hanbal there in terms of female circumcision, two different traditions, that of those which it is a wajib is duties as possess greater plausibility.

Explained below Dschād al-Haqq, meaning circumcision of both sexes: in men it was the removal of the piece of skin that the glans covered in women separating the piece of skin that is above the mouth of the urethra located (qaṭ' al-ǧilda allatī fauq maḫraǧ al-baul) , whereby this separation must take place in a moderate manner (dūna mubālaġa) and without clitoridectomy ( dūna istiʾṣāl ). Such an operation is called “reduction” (ḫifāḍ) among women .

According to Jād al-Haqq, the normative basis for carrying out this “reduction” is the hadith about the circumciser Umm ʿAtīya. It says that the Prophet instructed this woman not to cut too deep when she circumcised the girls because it would be better for both the future husband and the woman herself. Jād al-Haqq cites this and a similar tradition without addressing their weak reliability. In his view, these traditions show that the Prophet called for the circumcision of women but forbade clitoridectomy. The aim of this prophetic instruction is to bring the “sexual feeling” (al-ḥass al-ǧinsī) in the girl into balance. The Prophet had ordered circumcision to “regulate sexual desire” (ḍabṭ al-ištihāʾ) so that during sexual arousal she would not lose “control over herself” (at-taḥakkum fī nafsi-hā) , but at the same time forbade the “source of enjoyment ” (maṣdar al-istimtāʿ) .

Jād al-Haqq regards it as proven on the basis of 1. the Qur'anic commandment to imitate Abraham, 2. the hadith tradition on Umm ʿAtīya and 3. the scholarly consensus that the circumcision of girls belongs to the Fitra of Islam. One should not deviate from this instruction in favor of a doctor's opinion, because medicine, contrary to religious truths, is changeable and constantly in motion. In addition, there are also many doctors who recommend circumcision, on the one hand because it prevents the formation of smegma in the urinary tract and on the genitals and thus prevents "malignant diseases" (amrāḍ ḫabīṯa) , and on the other hand as an antidote to sexual arousal during puberty, "one of the most dangerous phases in a woman's life". In today's society, uncircumcised girls are exposed to numerous stimuli which could lead them to “aberration and depravity” (al-inḥirāf wa-l-fasād) . Jad al-Haqq therefore viewed female circumcision as a kind of preventive measure against immoral behavior.

With regard to the age at which the girls should be circumcised, Jād al-Haqq does not give any clear instructions, but he does refer to the tradition that the Prophet gave his two grandsons al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī and al-Husain ibn ʿAlī on the seventh day after the Circumcised birth. He also recommends to stay away from circumcisers who do not master this practice. At the end of his report he addressed an appeal to the parents to take the responsibility for the children entrusted to them by God seriously enough.

Jad al-Haqq's 1981 fatwa on female circumcision was one of the most momentous legal opinions in the debate on female circumcision. It served as "an authoritative and much-cited model for many later scholarly opinions".

Other significant fatwas

In the spring of 1980, Jād al-Haqq issued a lengthy opinion in defense of Law No. 44 on Marital Status, passed in the summer of 1979. This law, also known as Jehan's Law, allowed the wife to divorce if her husband took a second wife. Jād al-Haqq defended this new regulation as talfīq , i.e. a merging of the views of scholars from different disciplines , and the law as a whole as a continuation of efforts by fiqh that had already begun with the family laws of 1920 and 1929.

Jād al-Haqq dealt with the question of the admissibility of body modifications in a second report. This second opinion dates from June 1981 and was prepared at the request of an Islamic research center in Malaysia . Questions were asked about the admissibility of gender reassignment operations . In his response, he ruled that an operation aimed at externalizing hidden male or female sex organs was allowed. However, such operations are not permitted if they arise solely from the desire to change a person's sex.

In addition, during his tenure as Grand Mufti, Jad al-Haqq issued two other important political fatwas. The first related to a massacre of Christians in the Cairin district of Zāwiyat l-hamrā 'on June 17, 1981, in which 17 people were killed and 117 injured. Jād al-Haqq emphasized in his statement that Islam does not allow discrimination on the basis of religion, gender or skin color and invoked the spirit of cooperation between Muslims and Christians, which he developed using examples from the history of the time of Caliph ʿUmar ibn al- Chattāb tried to point out until the 1919 uprising .

The second political fatwa was a statement on the manifesto “The Neglected Duty” (al-Farīḍa al-ġāʾiba) by ʿAbd al-Salām Faraj , that of the group al-Jihad , which murdered President al-Sadat in October 1981, as legitimation had served for their plot. The report, which Jād al-Haqq prepared on behalf of the public prosecutor, was published in the newspaper al-Ahram in early December 1981 . Jād al-Haqq tried above all to refute the militancy of the Prophet Mohammed emphasized by ʿAbd al-Salām Faraj . For this purpose he cited a number of Koran quotations and hadiths, but also made use of lexicographical methods. He rejected the accusation of ʿAbd al-Salām Faraj that the Egyptians had apostatized, arguing that if that were indeed the case, they would not have been able to defeat the Israeli army in October 1973. In his statement, Jad al-Haqq compared the political ideas of the manifesto with those of the teaching of the Kharijites and declared them to be a distortion of the meaning of the Koran.

Legal theoretical positions

Although Jad al-Haqq himself belonged to the Hanafi school of law , which is also the basis of Egyptian civil status law , he was convinced that it was necessary to borrow from other schools of law. This type of eclecticism (taḫaiyur) was advocated by Muhammad ʿAbduh at the beginning of the century , but was subsequently rejected by many conservative scholars. Jād al-Haqq defended the practice of choosing from different schools of law, but made it conditional on the mufti being able to distinguish between the various pieces of evidence and adhering to the following rules:

1. he does not select a statement whose narrator chain is weak.
2. he chooses what works for the benefit of people's affairs, and strikes a balance between exaggeration and negligence.
3. he has good intentions in what he chooses, seeks God's pleasure, and fears his wrath.
4. he must not give the questioner a choice between two doctrinal opinions, because otherwise it would count as a third doctrine that no one has advocated before him.

The collection of legal opinions from the Fatwa Office

Jad al-Haqq was a firm advocate of the application of Sharia law . When he was asked in March 1979 by the magazine al-Musauwar about the role that the Sharia should play in Egyptian society, he emphasized its timeless and non-localized validity and stated that Muslims always obey the Sharia when it is followed had been “masters in their own house”, while conversely, if they were neglected, they came under the rule of others.

In order to advance the codification of Sharia and to prepare for its application, he began to publish the collection “Islamic Reports from the Egyptian Fatwa Office” (al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya min Dār al-Iftāʾ al-Miṣrīya) in July 1980 . In it he put together all the fatwas that the Egyptian fatwa office had issued in the more than eighty years of its existence. In the introduction, he pointed out that al-Sadat had described himself in a parliamentary speech two months earlier as “a Muslim president in a Muslim country” in preparation for the return of Sharia law, and related this to his own company. After his appointment as Sheikh al-Azhar, he pursued the project further by overseeing the publication of the volumes.

While the first seven volumes of the collection contain fatwas from the period from the establishment of the Egyptian fatwa office in 1895 to 1978, volumes 8-10 are dedicated to Jād al-Haqq's own reports. Volumes 11 to 20 are devoted to specific legal issues and contain fatwas from earlier times as well as Jād al-Haqq's own statements. He did not include the fatwas of his successors in the collection for a long time. They only appear from the 20th volume, which was published in 1993. Another collection of legal opinions from him was published in five volumes in 1995.

The fatwa war with Tantāwī

After his move to the Azhar, Jad al-Haqq strengthened the fatwa bodies there. In 1984 he issued an ordinance obliging the Azhar Fatwa Commission (laǧnat al-fatwā) to follow the decisions of the Academy for Islamic Investigation , which he chaired himself. At the same time he tried to marginalize the Egyptian fatwa office in favor of the Azhar bodies. From the end of the 1980s onwards he snubbed the political leadership several times by countering the fatwas of Muhammad Saiyid Tantāwī , who had served as the state mufti since 1986 and was more politically controlled in this office, with his own different fatwas. The dispute between the two sheikhs, which also had to do with the fact that Jād al-Haqq was not satisfied with the regime's policy towards the Islamic movements, developed into a downright fatwa war from 1989 onwards.

One of the questions the two sheikhs assessed differently was bank interest rates. While Jād al-Haqq declared this to be unacceptable usury in August 1989 , Tantāwī responded a month later with a fatwa in which he declared certain bank interest rates to be permissible and also suggested replacing the term “interest” with “income”. To further strengthen the Fatwa competence of Azhar Dschād al-Haqq in 1990 created regional decree 25 Fatwa commissions that this institution at the level of provinces should represent. They were filled with five to six Azhar graduates each, who belonged to the locally represented curriculum and who had the task of advising the local population on religious issues.

The two sheikhs clashed again when the public debate about female circumcision flared up again in autumn 1994. While Tantāwī headed a government commission in October 1994 that launched a religious information program to combat this practice, Jād al-Haqq reaffirmed his supportive position on this practice in a second, even more detailed fatwa. This fatwa was published in 1994 in the magazine Liwāʾ al-Islām , published by the Muslim Brotherhood . ʿAlī Ahmad al-Chatīb, the editor of the magazine, preceded the fatwa with a preface in which he reviled the critics of the practice as opponents of Islam.

The differences between the two sheikhs also affected the political sphere, and in particular the question of relations with Israel. While Jād al-Haqq declared anti-Israeli operations by Palestinian suicide bombers and Hezbollah legitimate in fatwas in the spring of 1995 , Tantāwī publicly announced in January 1995 that he would be ready to visit Israel, like Anwar al-Sadat, if that visit is in the religious or national interest. Jad al-Haqq responded on February 20 by stating that he was not ready to travel to Israel "as long as this state continues to threaten its neighbors and break its promises". In individual cases, the two sheikhs also issued matching fatwas. After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 , they both demanded the withdrawal of the Iraqi army and security for the Egyptians living in Iraq and Kuwait.

literature

Official Arabic biography

• Dār al-Iftāʾ: "Faḍīlat al-imām al-akbar aš-šaiḫ Ǧād al-ḥaqq ʿAlī Ǧād al-Ḥaqq" in al-Fatāwā al-islāmīya . Wizārat al-Auqāf, Cairo, 1983. Vol. VIII, pp. 2703-2705. Digitized

Secondary literature

• GC Anawati: "Une résurgence du Kharijisme au XXe siècle: 'L'obligation absente'" in Mélanges d'institut dominicain d'études orientales du Caire (MIDEO) 16 (1983) 191-228.
• ʿUmar Basṭawīs u. a .: Riḥlat al-Imām al-akbar aš-Shaiḫ Ǧād al-Ḥaqq ʿAlī Ǧād al-Ḥaqq Shaiḫ al-Azhar ilā as-Sanaġāl . Al-Ahrām, Cairo, 1995.
• Rainer Brunner: Approach and Distance: Schia, Azhar and the Islamic Ecumenism in the 20th Century . Schwarz, Berlin, 1996. pp. 292-294.
• Dörthe Engels: The Islamic Judgment of Female Circumcision. A critical analysis of the final text of the scholars' conference "Prohibition of Abuse of the Female Body" from November 22nd to 23rd, 2006 at the Azhar University in Cairo in the context of modern developments in Islamic legal practice. Master's thesis Freie Univ. Berlin, 2008. Digitized
• Nils Fischer: Islamic Positions on Prenatal Life . Alber, Freiburg / Breisgau, 2012. pp. 111f.
• Muhammad Hashem: Religious problems of Muslim minorities within the western context: a case study of Jâd Al-Ḥaq's printed Fatwas to Muslims in the West . Leiden Univ., Indonesian-Netherlands Cooperation in Islamic Studies (INIS), Leiden, 1997.
• Masʿūd Ṣabrī Ibrāhīm: Manhaǧ Dār al-Iftāʾ al-Miṣrīya fī l-mustaǧiddāt al-fiqhīya: min fatrat aš-Shaiḫ Ǧād al-Ḥaqq ḥatta ad-Duktūr ʿAlī Ǧumʿa 2005 m . Ṣaut al-Qalam al-ʿArabī, al-Munūfīya, 2010.
• Franz Kogelmann: The Islamists of Egypt in the reign of Anwar as-Sādāt: (1970-1981) Schwarz, Berlin, 1994. pp. 150–158. Digitized
• Yitzhak Reiter: "Islam and the question of peace with Israel: Jad al-Haqq's Fatwa permitting Egypt's 1979 peace treaty with Israel" in Moshe Maʻoz (ed.): Muslim attitudes to Jews and Israel: the ambivalences of rejection, antagonism, tolerance and cooperation . Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 2010. pp. 90-112.
• Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. Muftis and Fatwas of the Dār al-Iftā . Brill, Leiden, 1997. pp. 227-245.
• Tim Winter: "Obituary Sheikh Gad al-Haq Ali Gad al-Haq" in Independent March 18, 1996. Online
• Malika Zeghal: "La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi: Les cheikhs à l'epreuve du pouvoir" in Les cahiers de l'Orient: revue d'étude et de reflexion sur le monde arabe et musulman 45 (1997) 81-95.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 228.
2. ↑ Cf. Dār al-Iftāʾ: Faḍīlat al-imām al-akbar . 1983, Vol. VIII, p. 2703.
3. ↑ Cf. Dār al-Iftāʾ: Faḍīlat al-imām al-akbar . 1983, Vol. VIII, p. 2704.
4. ↑ See Winter: Obituary Sheikh Gad al-Haq . 1996.
5. ↑ Cf. Dār al-Iftāʾ: Faḍīlat al-imām al-akbar . 1983, Vol. VIII, p. 2704.
6. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 227.
7. ↑ See Zeghal: "La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi". 1997, p. 87.
8. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 228.
9. ↑ Cf. Dār al-Iftāʾ: Faḍīlat al-imām al-akbar . 1983, Vol. VIII, p. 2705.
10. ↑ Cf. al-Mausūʿa al-Qaumīya li-š-šaḫṣīyāt al-miṣrīya al-bāriza . Wizārat al-Iʿlām, Cairo 1989. p. 88.
11. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 230.
12. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 239.
13. ↑ See Reiter: Islam and the question of peace with Israel . 2010. p. 93.
14. ↑ See the text in al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya min Dār al-Iftāʾ al-Miṣrīya . Wizārat al-Auqāf, Cairo, 1983. Vol. X, pp. 3621–3636, Fatwa No. 1316. Digitized
15. ↑ See the English translation of the text in Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 234.
16. ↑ See Reiter: Islam and the question of peace with Israel . 2010. p. 104f.
17. ↑ See Reiter: Islam and the question of peace with Israel . 2010. p. 105.
18. ↑ See Reiter: Islam and the question of peace with Israel . 2010. p. 107.
19. ↑ See Reiter: Islam and the question of peace with Israel . 2010. p. 109.
20. ↑ See Reiter: Islam and the question of peace with Israel . 2010. p. 110.
21. ↑ It is published in al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya min Dār al-Iftāʾ al-Miṣrīya . Al-Maǧlis al-Aʿlā li-'š-Šu'ūn al-Islāmīya, Cairo, 1983. Vol. IX, pp. 3119-3125, Fatwa No. 1202. Digitized
22. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3119.
23. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3119.
24. ↑ Cf. Roswitha Badry: "On the 'Circumcision of Girls' in Islamic Countries. Religious and Legal Aspects and Feminist Criticism" in Freiburg Women's Studies. Journal for interdisciplinary women's research 5 (1999) 213–232. Here p. 228f. Digitized
25. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3120f.
26. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3121.
27. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3121.
28. ↑ See Engels: The Islamic Judgment of Female Circumcision. 2008, p. 108.
29. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3122.
30. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3123 and Engels: The Islamic Judgment of Female Circumcision. 2008, p. 116.
31. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3124.
32. ↑ See Engels: The Islamic Judgment of Female Circumcision. 2008, p. 117.
33. ↑ See al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya . 1983, p. 3124f.
34. ↑ See Engels: The Islamic Judgment of Female Circumcision. 2008, p. 143
35. ↑ See Engels: The Islamic Judgment of Female Circumcision. 2008, p. 108.
36. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 232f.
37. ↑ See Baudouin Dupret: "Sexual Morality at the Egyptian Bar: Female Circumcision, Sex Change Operations, and Motives for Suing" in Islamic Law and Society 9 (2001) 42-69. Here p. 51.
38. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 237.
39. ↑ Anawati offers a French translation: "Une résurgence du Kharijisme au XXe siècle: 'L'obligation absente'". 1983, pp. 195-225.
40. ↑ Cf. Kogelmann: Die Islamisten Ägyptens . 1994, p. 151f.
41. ↑ Cf. Kogelmann: Die Islamisten Ägyptens . 1994, pp. 154f.
42. ↑ Cf. Kogelmann: Die Islamisten Ägyptens . 1994, p. 156.
43. ↑ Cf. Dār al-Iftāʾ: Faḍīlat al-imām al-akbar . 1983, Vol. VIII, p. 2703.
44. ↑ See the text in al-Fatāwa al-islāmīya min Dār al-Iftāʾ al-Miṣrīya . Wizārat al-Auqāf, Cairo, 1980. Vol. I, p. 17. Digitized
45. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 28.
46. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 231.
47. ↑ A digitized version of the collection is available here .
48. ↑ Cf. Dār al-Iftāʾ: Faḍīlat al-imām al-akbar . 1983, Vol. VIII, p. 2704.
49. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 242f.
50. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 244f.
51. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 243.
52. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 239.
53. ↑ See Zeghal: "La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi". 1997, p. 87.
54. ↑ See Zeghal: "La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi". 1997, p. 81f.
55. ↑ Cf. Zeghal: La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi. 1997, p. 89.
56. ↑ See Skovgaard-Petersen: Defining Islam for the Egyptian State. 1997, p. 289.
57. ↑ See Zeghal: "La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi". 1997, p. 90.
58. ↑ See amāl al-Bannā : Ḫitān al-banāt laisa sunna wa-lā makruma wa-lākin ǧarīma . Dār al-Fikr al-islāmī, Cairo, 2005. p. 36.
59. ↑ See Zeghal: "La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi". 1997, p. 92.
60. ↑ See Zeghal: "La guerre des fatwas - Gad al-Haqq et Tantawi". 1997, p. 94.