Corfu incident

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Corfu incident
Corfu, one of the Ionian Islands
Corfu, one of the Ionian Islands
date August 29, 1923 to September 27, 1923
place Corfu , Greece Coordinates: 39 ° 37 ′ 9 ″  N , 19 ° 55 ′ 11 ″  EWorld icon
output Agreement between the Kingdoms of Italy and Greece under the supervision of the Paris Ambassadors Conference
Parties to the conflict

Italy 1861Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946) Italy

Kingdom of GreeceKingdom of Greece Greece

Commander

Italy 1861Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946) Admiral Emilio Solari

Troop strength
2 or 3 battleships

2 or 4 cruisers
5 or 6 destroyers
2 torpedo boats
4 MAS
2 submarines
1 airship
warplanes
6 batteries of light artillery
5,000, 8,000 or 10,000 soldiers

150, Greek garrison
losses

No

16 civilians killed, 30 injured and 2 amputated, or
20 civilians killed and 32 injured

The Corfu incident was a diplomatic and armed conflict over the Greek island of Corfu between the Kingdom of Greece and the Kingdom of Italy in 1923. The Fascist Prime Minister of Italy, Benito Mussolini , took up the assassination of the Italian General Tellini, who had been appointed to arbitrate border conflicts was the occasion to occupy Corfu. After the League of Nations was not ready to resolve the matter, the Paris Ambassadors Conference largely complied with Mussolini's demands. When Greece fulfilled this, the Italians left Corfu again after several days of occupation.

Starting position

The Greek State 1832–1947

Spread and conflicts with neighboring states

After the Greek War of Independence from 1821-1829, the Greek Kingdom was internationally recognized in 1832. On May 21, 1864, the Republic of the Ionian Islands with Corfu joined the Greek state. Greece grew around Thessaly in 1881 and around Crete in 1908. During the two Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913, Greece finally secured Crete and expanded its territory to include parts of Macedonia and Epirus . Greece had thus reached a territorial size that corresponds closely to today's.

During the First World War , Greece remained neutral for a long time and only entered the war on the Entente side in 1917 . In Greece, the Megali Idea developed under Venizelos : Supported by the desire to join areas predominantly populated by Greeks to the national territory, the young kingdom fought against the Ottoman Empire, weakened by the First World War, in the Greco-Turkish War from 1919 to 1922, including for the to defend and expand areas acquired by the Treaty of Sèvres. Greece lost the Greco-Turkish War, the Greek population was expelled from Asia Minor in the Asia Minor catastrophe . Greece took in a large part of these refugees and at the same time lost political stability; there were several attempts at military overthrow. After political pressure from Italy, Greece had to cede the long-occupied island of Sason (today: Sazan ) in the Strait of Otranto to Italy.

In the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923, a large population exchange was agreed, according to which Greeks had to leave Turkey and Turks had to leave Greece. Greece was weakened by the many wars and defeat with Turkey, while at the same time it had to take in hundreds of thousands of Greek refugees.

Meanwhile in 1922 Mussolini had become head of government of the Kingdom of Italy with the urge to expand his state.

Border disputes in the northwest

In the west, Greece tried to join the Northern Epirus after the first Balkan War . This led to border disputes with the newly founded Principality of Albania . Both countries expressed their conflict before the conference of ambassadors , which formed a committee of British, French and Italian officials to the borders with the approval of the League of Nations to fix and settle the dispute.

The Italian general Enrico Tellini became chairman of the commission. The relationship between Greece and the Commission was already difficult at the beginning of the negotiations. Finally, the Greek delegation publicly accused Tellini of campaigning in favor of the Albanian claims.

Assassination of Tellini

Kakavia (Greece)
Kakavia
Kakavia
Kakavia, the place where Enrico Tellini was murdered.

On August 27, 1923, Tellini, two of his advisors, their translator and their driver were victims of an ambush in which they were murdered by unrecognized perpetrators at the border crossing of Kakavia on Greek territory, about 60 kilometers northwest of Ioannina . The five victims were Enrico Tellini, Major Luigi Corti, Lieutenant Mario Bonacini, the Albanian translator Thanassi Gheziri and the driver Farnetti Remizio. None of the victims was robbed. The attack occurred near the disputed border and could have been carried out by both parties to the dispute.

According to reports from Italian newspapers and the official statement from the Albanian government, the attack was carried out by Greeks, while other sources, including the Greek government with its representatives and the Romanian consul in Ioannina, blamed Albanian bandits. Reginald Leeper, British ambassador in Athens, wrote in a letter to the British Foreign Office in 1945 that the Greeks could accuse the Çamen as perpetrators.

Italian and Greek reactions

As soon as the attack became known, anti-Greek demonstrations broke out in Italy. All Greek newspapers condemned the attack and testified to Italy's wellbeing. They expressed the wish that the Greek cabinet should satisfy Italy without violating its own national dignity.

On August 29, 1923, Italy responded by sending Greece an ultimatum with seven demands:

  1. An official, full apology to the Italian delegation in Athens.
  2. A memorial service in the Catholic Cathedral in Athens in the presence of the entire Greek government.
  3. Military honors for the dead.
  4. Full honor of the Greek fleet to the Italian one that would be sent to Piraeus .
  5. Death penalty for the guilty.
  6. A reparation payment of 50 million lire within five days of receiving the ultimatum.
  7. A detailed investigation of the incidents with the participation of the Italian military attaché.

Italy also demanded that Greece respond to the ultimatum within 24 hours.

Greece responded the following day and accepted four of the demands with modifications:

  1. The Piraeus commander would express the regrets of the Greek government to the Italian minister.
  2. A memorial service would be held in the presence of government officials.
  3. On the same day a delegation from the guard would salute the Italian flag at the Italian delegation.
  4. The military would pay tribute to the physical remains of the victims if they were transferred to an Italian warship.

The other demands were rejected on the grounds that they violated the sovereignty and dignity of Greece. In addition, the Greek government has declared its full cooperation to pay adequate compensation to the families of the victims as an act of justice. The involvement of the Italian military attaché in the investigation was refused, but his support through information for the search of the perpetrators was accepted.

Mussolini and the Italian Cabinet were dissatisfied with the Greek response and declared it unacceptable. The Italian press, including the opposition newspapers, supported Mussolini's demands and insisted that Greece should submit without hesitation. Mussolini's decision was received with enthusiasm across Italy.

Bombing and occupation of Corfu

On August 31, 1923, a squadron of the Italian Navy bombed the Greek island of Corfu and landed 5,000, 8,000 or 10,000 soldiers according to various sources. Airplanes supported the attack movements. The Italians concentrated their fire on the old fortress in the city ​​of Corfu , which had long been demilitarized and served as shelter for Greek refugees from Asia Minor, and the school of the city police in the new fortress, which also served as refugee accommodation. The bombardment lasted 15 or 30 minutes. As a result, 16 civilians were killed, 30 wounded and two amputated; according to another source 20 killed and 32 wounded. There were no soldiers among the victims, all of them were refugees or orphans. The majority of those killed were children. The Save the Children commissioner described the bombing as inhuman and hideous, unjustifiable and unnecessary.

Corfu Prefect Petros Evripaios as well as Greek officers and officials were arrested by the Italians and arrested on board an Italian warship. The Greek garrison of 150 men did not capitulate, but withdrew into the interior of the island.

Upon landing, Italian officers feared British citizens might have been killed or wounded and were relieved to learn that there were no British among the victims. The residence of the British officer responsible for training at the police school, who was on vacation, was ransacked by Italian soldiers.

Reactions to the bombing and occupation of Corfu

The Greek government imposed martial law in Greece. The Greek fleet was instructed to withdraw to the Gulf of Volos to avoid confrontation with the Italian fleet. A memorial service for the victims of the bombing was held in the Athens Greek Orthodox Cathedral while the bells of all churches rang continuously. After the service, demonstrations against Italy broke out. All entertainment venues were closed as a token of mourning for the victims of the bombing.

At the protest of the Italian minister, the Greek government suspended the newspaper Eleftheros Typos for a day after it had characterized the Italians as "refugees from the Twelfth Battle of Isonzo " and dismissed the censor for allowing the article to go through. In addition, the Greek government provided a delegation of 30 men to guard the Italian delegation in Athens. Meanwhile, Greek newspapers unanimously condemned the actions of Italy.

Italy closed the Straits of Corfu and Otranto to Greek ships. Italian shipping companies were ordered to boycott Greece, while Greek shipowners traveling on behalf of Italy were suspended. Greek ports remained open to Italian ships. Greek ships were arrested in Italy's ports and one was detained by a submarine in the Strait of Corfu. But on September 2, the Italian Ministry of the Navy ordered the Greek ships to be released in the Italian ports.

Again anti-Greek demonstrations broke out in Italy. The Italian government ordered its reserve units in London to stand by. Victor Emmanuel III , King of Italy, immediately returned to Rome from his summer residence. The Italian military attaché charged with investigating Tellini's assassination has been recalled and Greek journalists have been expelled from Italy.

Albania strengthened the Greek-Albanian border and prohibited crossing it.

Serbian newspapers said Serbia would support Greece, while elements in Turkey recommended Ataturk to seize the opportunity to raid western Thrace .

The chairman of the Near East Relief organization said he believed the bombing was completely unnecessary and unjustified. Italy turned to the US Legation to protest this statement.

The chairman of the Commission for Deported Women and Children at the League of Nations, who was an eyewitness to the bombing, commented: "The crime of Corfu was official murder by a civilized nation ... I consider the manner in which Corfu occupied as inhuman."

arbitration

Corfu incident (Greece)
Kakavia
Kakavia
Corfu
Corfu
Kakavia (red) and Corfu (green)

On September 1, Greece turned to the League of Nations, but Antonio Salandra , the Italian representative to the League of Nations, informed the council that he had no permission to discuss the crisis. Mussolini refused to cooperate and demanded that the matter be brought to the Paris Ambassadors Conference . Italy declared that it would leave the League of Nations rather than allow it to intervene. Great Britain advocated having the matter resolved by the League of Nations, but France resisted fearing that this could set a precedent for the League of Nations and result in federal intervention in the French occupation of the Ruhr . Because of Mussolini's threat to leave the Bund and France's lack of support, the matter was actually referred to the Paris Ambassadors' Conference. Italy's prestige was unaffected and France relieved. The refusal of the League of Nations to accept this case in order not to settle a dispute among a great nation is today seen as an early example of the weakness of this organization.

On September 8th, the Paris Ambassadors' Conference to Greece, Italy and the League of Nations announced the terms on which the dispute was to be settled. The decision was as follows:

  1. The Greek fleet was to greet the Italian with a 21 gun salute, which was then to enter the port of Piraeus , followed by French and British warships, which were also to take part in the salute,
  2. the funeral should be attended by the Greek cabinet,
  3. the dead were to be given military honors in Preveza ,
  4. Greece should deposit 50,000,000 lire in a Swiss bank account as a guarantee,
  5. the Greek High Command had to apologize to the representatives of Great Britain, France and Italy in Athens,
  6. a Greek investigation into the murders was to take place under the supervision of an international commission led by the Japanese Lieutenant-Colonel Shibuya, who was military attaché to the Japanese embassy, ​​and to be completed by September 27,
  7. Greece must ensure the security of the Commission and meet its costs,
  8. Greece must give its consent immediately, individually and simultaneously to the representatives of Great Britain, France and Italy in Athens.
  9. In addition, the conference asked for the support of the Albanian government to facilitate the work of the commission on Albanian territory.

Greece agreed on the same day, Italy two days later on September 10th. However, Italy added not to leave the island until Greece had fulfilled all of its obligations.

The decision of the conference was well received in Italy and Mussolini was celebrated for his success.

On September 11th, the Greek delegate Nikolaos Politis informed the council that Greece had deposited the 50,000,000 lire in the Swiss bank account. On September 15, the conference instructed Mussolini that Italy must leave Corfu no later than September 27.

On September 26th, before the end of the investigation, the conference approved compensation of 50,000,000 lire for Italy because "the Greek authorities had been guilty of a certain negligence before and after the crime."

In addition, Italy demanded from Greece 1,000,000 lire for every day in occupation costs. The conference allowed Italy to pursue its rights before an international court of law.

The decision of the conference was received with great disappointment in Greece after Italy had met almost all of its demands by the conference.

Evacuation of Corfu

On September 27th the Italian flag was lowered and the Italian troops left Corfu. The Italian fleet and a Greek destroyer saluted the Italian flag and, after the Greek flag was hoisted, the Italian fleet saluted it.

40,000 residents of Corfu welcomed the prefect on his return and accompanied him to the prefecture. British and French flags were waved in the crowd that demonstrated enthusiastically in front of the Anglo-French consulates.

The Italian naval squadron was ordered to remain at anchor until Italy received the 50 million lire.

The 50,000,000 lire that had been deposited in the Swiss bank account were under the control of the Hager Tribunal . However, the bank refused to transfer the money to Rome without the approval of the National Bank of Greece . This gave their approval later that evening.

The Italian fleet left the area on September 30th with the exception of one destroyer.

Effects

Mussolini was able to improve his position through this foreign policy success.

In Corfu, many Italian operas were performed in the city's theater in the first quarter of the 20th century. This tradition came to an end as a result of the incident. Instead, Greek operas and plays were now performed with the participation of Greek actors such as Marika Kotopouli and Pelos Katselis.

Conclusion

The real motive for the invasion was Corfu's strategic location at the entrance to the Adriatic Sea .

The crisis was the first great test for the League of Nations, but it failed. It showed that the covenant was weak and unable to resolve a dispute between a small and a large power. The authority of the covenant was openly undermined by Italy, a founding and permanent member of the council. The crisis was also a failure for the policy of Britain, which had been a forerunner for the League of Nations during the crisis.

In addition, the purpose and tone of fascist foreign policy became apparent. The Italian fascists won their first major international conflict. Italy's invasion of Corfu was Mussolini's most aggressive move during the 1920s. His success was at the same time the pillar of his domestic political position.

Postage stamps

On September 11, 1923, an Italian post office opened in Corfu, which issued a series of eight Italian postage stamps, overprinted with "CORFU", which went on sale from September 20. Three more stamps printed in Greek currency arrived on September 24th. The third stamp cost 2.4 drachmas for 1 lire. The office closed at noon on September 26, 1923 and only sent morning mail that morning. The post office was open for 15 days.

Three more stamps arrived when the office closed, they were never issued. They were only sold later at the Ministry of Post in Rome. Many of these stamps have counterfeit postmarks, but hundreds of stamps are known to have been canceled by the office before it closed.

People in important roles in Greece and Italy

Greece

Italy

  • Benito Mussolini , Prime Minister .
  • Antonio Salandra , Italian representative to the League of Nations.
  • Victor Emmanuel III , King of Italy.
  • General Armando Diaz , Minister of War.
  • Giulio Cesare Montagna, the Italian ambassador in Athens.
  • Colonel Perone di San Martino, the Italian military attaché.
  • Admiral Emilio Solari, commander of the Italian troops in Corfu.
  • Admiral Diego Simonetti, Commander of the Italian Fleet in the Lower Adriatic; he was appointed governor of Corfu during the occupation.
  • Captain Antonio Foschini, chief of the admiralty's staff, the man who delivered the ultimatum to the Greek prefect.

Further literature

Web links

Videos

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f John Gooch: Mussolini and his Generals: The Armed Forces and Fascist Foreign Policy, 1922-1940 . Cambridge University Press , December 2007, ISBN 0-521-85602-7 , p. 45.
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i BOMBARDMENT OF CORFU. . In: The Morning Bulletin , National Library of Australia, October 1, 1935, p. 6. Retrieved July 30, 2013. 
  3. ↑ a b GREEK FORT AT CORFU SHELLED BY ITALIAN WARSHIPS . In: Rochester Evening Journal And The Post Express , Sep 4, 1923, p. 2.  "Airplanes aided in the attack."
  4. ↑ a b CORFU OCCUPIED AFTER BOMBARDMENT; 15 GREEK CIVILIANS KILLED, MANY WOUNDED . In: Providence News , September 1, 1923, p. 37.  "As the landing of the Italians was carried out, fire also was opened from planes above the town."
  5. ↑ a b CORFU OCCUPIED AFTER BOMBARDMENT; 15 GREEK CIVILIANS KILLED, MANY WOUNDED . In: Providence News , September 1, 1923, p. 37.  "With firing from the fleet and airplanes."
  6. ↑ ITALIAN NAVY GUNS KILLED ARMENIANS ORPHANS IN CORFU. . In: The Montreal Gazette , September 5, 1923, p. 10.  "... and six batteries of light artillery."
  7. ↑ a b c d e LEAGUE CHALLENGED. . In: The Argus , National Library of Australia, September 6, 1923, p. 9. Retrieved March 21, 2013.  "Eight thousand troops were landed."
  8. ↑ ITALIAN NAVY GUNS KILLED ARMENIANS ORPHANS IN CORFU. . In: The Montreal Gazette , September 5, 1923, p. 10.  "... when i left the Italians had landed 10,000 troops"
  9. ↑ a b 5000 ITALIAN TROOPS HAVE LANDED AT CORFU GREEK GARRISON FLED. . In: The Barrier Miner , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 23, 2013. 
  10. ↑ a b Οταν οι Ιταλοί κατέλαβαν την Κέρκυρα το 1923 . In: TO BHMA .
  11. ^ A b American Scores Bombardment Of Corfu Civilians. . In: Meriden Morning Record , September 4, 1923, p. 1.  "the number killed reached twenty, nine of these were killed outright and eleven died at the hospital. Thirty-two wounded are now in hospitals and there were perhaps fifty slightly wounded . "
  12. ^ The coup in Greece . In: Vossische Zeitung , July 4, 1925, morning edition, p. 4.
  13. ↑ a b c d e f g h THE ITALO-GREEK CRISIS. . In: The Register , National Library of Australia, October 15, 1923, p. 11. Retrieved March 20, 2013. 
  14. ↑ Michael Brecher, Jonathan Wilkenfeld: A study of crisis . University of Michigan Press, 1997, ISBN 0-472-10806-9 , p. 583.
  15. ↑ A Study of Crisis . In: google.com .
  16. ↑ Richard Massock: Italy from Within . READ BOOKS, 2007, ISBN 1-4067-2097-6 .
  17. ^ Fellows Nick: History for the IB Diploma: Peacemaking, Peacekeeping: International Relations 1918–36 . Cambridge University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1-107-61391-1 , p. 131: "Although the incident occurred close to the disputed border and could therefore have been carried out by either side, the Italians blamed the Greeks."
  18. ↑ Martyn Housden : The League of Nations and the Organization of Peace . Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-1-317-86221-5 , p. 131: “Unfortunately he was murdered, most likely by bandits. Although the culprits were never caught, reports were flashed to Mussolini blaming the Greek side "
  19. ↑ Italy in the last fifteen hundred years: a concise history By Reinhold Schumann p. 298 ( books.google.com )
  20. ↑ GREEK PLOT ALLEGED. . In: Kalgoorlie Miner , National Library of Australia, August 31, 1923, p. 5. Retrieved March 16, 2013.  “ The Italian newspapers declare that the murders were the result of deliberate ambuscade by Greeks — natives of Epirus, and will leave to indelible stain. The Albanian Legation in London has received a telegram from Tirana affirming that Greek armed bands were the assassins ”
  21. ↑ Albania's Captives. Pyrrhus J. Ruches. Argonaut, 1965 p. 120 "He had no trouble recognizing three of them. They were Major Lepenica, Nevruz Belo and Xhellaledin Aqif Feta, alias Daut Hohxa."
  22. ↑ ALBANIANS BLAMED. . In: The Daily News , National Library of Australia, August 31, 1923, p. 7 Edition: THIRD EDITION. Retrieved March 16, 2013.  "The Governor-General of Epirus, the Greek Delegation, and the Roumanian Consul in Janina, attribute the Telini crime to Albanians."
  23. ↑ MURDERED ITALIANS. . In: The Recorder , National Library of Australia, September 17, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 16, 2013.  "The Exchange correspondent at Athens says the Court of Inquiry into the Janiria murders puts forward a suggestion that the Italian delegates were killed as an act of vengeance because during the Italian occupation of Vairona Colonel Tellini as Governor had several Albanians shot, including notables. "
  24. ↑ Christopher Duggan: The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, April 2008, ISBN 0-618-35367-4 , p. 439. "... the killers (who had never caught) had almost certainly come from Albania, ..."
  25. ^ A b Robert Elsie, Bejtullah D. Destani, Rudina Jasini: The Cham Albanians of Greece: A Documentary History . IBTauris, December 18, 2012, ISBN 978-1-78076-000-1 , p. 360.
  26. ↑ Italians Incensed. . In: The West Australian , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1924, p. 11. Retrieved March 16, 2013.  "Demonstrations against the Greeks are reported from all parts of Italy."
  27. ↑ GREEK FLAG BURNED. . In: The West Australian , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 11. Retrieved March 16, 2013.  "Anti-Greek demonstrations continue in the Italian towns, notably in Trieste, where Nationalists and Fascists burned the Greek flag in the public square, and threw it into the sea. In Milan there were noisy scenes in front of the Greek Consulate, and demonstrators carried off a shield which bore a replica of the Greek arms. "
  28. ↑ ITALIAN DEMANDS A MINIMUM. . In: The Recorder , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 16, 2013.  "Anti-Greek demonstrations are reported from all over Italy, and the police have been reinforced."
  29. ^ Greek Press Views. . In: The West Australian , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 11. Retrieved May 1, 2013.  "The Greek newspapers condemn unanimously the Telini crime, and express friendly sentiments towards Italy. They hope that the Cabinet will give legitimate satisfaction to Italy without going beyond the limits of national dignity. "
  30. ↑ GCSE History Notes , p. 19. "... blamed the Greeks and demanded 50 million lire in compensation"
  31. ↑ James Burgwyn: Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period: 1918-1940 . Praeger, April 1997, ISBN 978-0-275-94877-1 , p. 23. "..., a 50 million lire penalty, ..."
  32. ↑ TERMS OF ULTIMATUM. . In: Kalgoorlie Miner , National Library of Australia, August 31, 1923, p. 5. Retrieved March 16, 2013. 
  33. ↑ James Burgwyn: Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period: 1918-1940 . Praeger, April 1997, ISBN 978-0-275-94877-1 , p. 23. "... demanding of the Greeks an apology, a funeral service for the victims, naval salutes for the Italian flag, a 50 million lire penalty , and a strict inquiry, to be carried out quickly with the assistance of the Italian military attaché. "
  34. ^ ITALY AND AFRICA. . In: The Sydney Morning Herald , National Library of Australia, October 29, 1935, p. 10. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "Two days later the Italian Minister at Athens forwarded to the Greek Government the following demands: An unreserved official apology , the holding of a solemn memorial service in the Catholic cathedral at Athens all the members of the Government to be present, the paying of honors to the Italian flag by the Greek navy, a drastic Inquiry into the assassination in the presence of the Royal Italian military attaché, capital punishment for the authors of the crime, military honors for the bodies of the victims, and an indemnity of 50,000,000 lire within five days of the presentation of the note. "
  35. ↑ Michael Brecher, Jonathan Wilkenfeld: A study of crisis . University of Michigan Press , 1997, p. 583. "... demanding compliance within 24 hours."
  36. ↑ THE ALBANIAN MURDERS. . In: The Recorder , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 17, 2013. 
  37. ↑ James Burgwyn: Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period: 1918-1940 . Praeger, April 1997, ISBN 978-0-275-94877-1 , p. 23. "Greece accepted all but the last two parts of the ultimatum, which appeared to violate its national sovereignty."
  38. ↑ GREECE WILL INDEMNIFY BEREAVED. . In: The Recorder , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "The Government is ready to express profound sorrow and indemnify the bereaved families, but is not disposed to accept Italy's humiliating conditions . "
  39. ↑ hillsdalesites.org ( Memento of the original from December 14, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.hillsdalesites.org
  40. ^ Another European War Possible. . In: The Advertiser , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 9. Retrieved April 10, 2013.  "The reply adds that it is impossible to accept the demands of capital punishment for those responsible and an indemnity of 500,000 or an inquiry in the presence of the Italian military attaché, but Greece willingly accept Italian assistance in carrying out the investigations. The Greek Government are prepared to accord a just indemnity to the families of the victims. "
  41. ↑ WARLIKE ACT COMMITTED BY ITALY. . In: The Mail , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "Signor Mussolini (the Italian Premier) read the Greek reply to the Italian ultimatum to Cabinet, which declared that it was , unacceptable. "
  42. ↑ FRENCH FEELING FAVORS ITALY. . In: The Mail , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "The Italian press, including the opposition journals, enthusiastically endorse Premier Mussolini's demands and insist that Greece must instantly comply without discussion . "
  43. ↑ ITALIAN NEWSPAPERS SUPPORT GOVERNMENT. . In: The Recorder , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "The newspapers are unanimous in supporting the ultimatum."
  44. ↑ Peter Neville: Mussolini . Routledge, December 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-24990-4 , p. 93. "Even his critic, Luigi Albertini, gave Mussolini full backing in Corriere della Sera ."
  45. ↑ TELL WHY CORFU WAS OCCUPIED . In: Spokane Daily Chronicle , September 1, 1923, p. 12.  "Mussolini's decision that the Greek reply could not be accepted, was received everywhere with greatest enthusiasm"
  46. ↑ ITALIAN NAVY GUNS KILLED ARMENIANS ORPHANS IN CORFU. . In: The Montreal Gazette , September 5, 1923, p. 10.  "… when i left the Italians had landed 10,000 troops and six batteries of light artillery."
  47. ↑ Italians Bombard Corfu 15 Greeks Are Killed And Many Said To Be Wounded . In: The Lewiston Daily Sun , September 1, 1923.  "Fire also was opened from airplanes above the town."
  48. ↑ ITALIAN NAVY GUNS KILLED ARMENIANS ORPHANS IN CORFU. . In: The Montreal Gazette , September 5, 1923, p. 10.  "The bombardment lasted 15 minutes ..."
  49. ↑ WAR CRISIS IN EUROPE. . In: Aurora Daily Star , September 1, 1923, p. 1.  "Fort at Corfu bombard for 30minutes."
  50. ^ William Miller: The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801-1927 . Routledge, October 12, 2012, ISBN 978-1-136-26039-1 , p. 548.
  51. ↑ Killing Of 15 Greeks, Occupation Of Corfu, Brings Serious Crisis. . In: The Washington Reporter , September 1, 1923, p. 1.  "The Prefect and Greek officers who remained in the fort were arrested by the Italians"
  52. ↑ a b BOMBARDMENT OF CORFU CONSIDERED DECLARATION OF WAR. . In: Easton Free Press , September 1, 1923, p. 3.  "The governor of Corfu and ten officers are being detained abroad an Italian warship [...] while the garrison of 150 men retired to the interior of the island."
  53. ↑ Killing Of 15 Greeks, Occupation Of Corfu, Brings Serious Crisis. . In: The Washington Reporter , September 1, 1923, p. 1.  "The Greek troops which were stationed in the Corfu fortress have been withdrawn to the interior of the island."
  54. ↑ THE CORFU BOMBARDMENT. . In: The Register , National Library of Australia, September 5, 1923, p. 9. Retrieved April 18, 2013.  "The first Italian officer who landed walked along, mopping his brow, to the spot where English and American nurses were attending the wounded. The officer asked, "Were any Britons killed or wounded? "No." was the reply, whereupon he heaved a sigh of relief and said, "Thank God!" "
  55. ↑ ITALIAN NAVY GUNS KILLED ARMENIANS ORPHANS IN CORFU. . In: The Montreal Gazette , September 5, 1923, p. 10.  "After landing one group of Italian soldiers visited the residence of Captain Sloonan, director of the British police school. Sloonan was away on his vacation. They looted the premises despite protests from the British servants. "
  56. ↑ MARTIAL LAW IN GREECE. . In: The Mercury , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved March 21, 2013.  "The Government has proclaimed martial law throughout Greece."
  57. ↑ PLAYING SAFE. . In: The Brisbane Courier , National Library of Australia, September 8, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved April 21, 2013. 
  58. ↑ MOURNING IN ATHENS. . In: The Daily News , National Library of Australia, September 5, 1923, p. 7 Edition: THIRD EDITION. Retrieved March 25, 2013.  "… on Monday a solemn memorial service was held in the cathedral for 12 persons who were killed in the Corfu bombardment. The bells of all of the churches were tolled continuously, and incense was burned in many houses as a sign of mourning. Crowds paraded the streets after the service, crying, Down with Italy, but the police dispersed them. "
  59. ↑ a b c d e f g BALKAN CRISIS STILL GRAVE; MORE GREEK TERRITORY SAID TO BE OCCUPIED BY ITALIANS . In: The Morning Leader , September 3, 1923, p. 1. 
  60. ^ Newspaper Suspended. . In: The West Australian , National Library of Australia, September 4, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved May 3, 2013.  "A Greek newspaper has been suspended for the day for styling the Italians:" The fugitives of Carporetto. "The Censor has been dismissed for allowing the publication of the insult. "
  61. ↑ SUBMARINE SEIZES GREEK STEAMER. . In: The Daily News , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 9 Edition: THIRD EDITION. Retrieved April 21, 2013. 
  62. ↑ FEELING IN GREECE. . In: The West Australian , National Library of Australia, September 4, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved May 3, 2013. 
  63. ↑ WAR LIKE ACT COMMITTED BY ITALY. . In: The Mail , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved April 23, 2013.  "An Italian tramp steamer going to ports in Asia Minor was ordered to boycott Greece."
  64. ↑ WAR LIKE ACT COMMITTED BY ITALY. . In: The Mail , National Library of Australia, September 1, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved April 23, 2013.  "A Greek steamer about to depart from Brindisi homeward was stopped and remains in the harbor"
  65. ↑ RELEASE OF GREEK, SHIPS. . In: The Daily News , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 9 Edition: THIRD EDITION. Retrieved April 21, 2013.  "According to a Rome message, the Ministry of Marine has ordered all Greek ships to be allowed to leave Italian ports without hindrance."
  66. ↑ GREEK "ARMS" TORN DOWN. . In: The Brisbane Courier , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved April 19, 2013.  "During an anti-Greek demonstration at Milan the crowd tore down the Coat of Arms from the Greek Consulate."
  67. ↑ ITALIANS IN LONDON. . In: The Brisbane Courier , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved April 19, 2013.  "Italian reservists in London have received orders from the secretary of their Legation to hold themselves in readiness for army service during the next five days when it will be known whether they are wanted or not. "
  68. ↑ KING RETURNING TO ROME. . In: The Examiner , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 5 Edition: DAILY. Retrieved April 21, 2013.  "A Rome message says that the King is returning to Rome from his summer residence immediately."
  69. ↑ OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ BY US CITED BY ITALY IN CORFU BOMBARDMENT . In: The Bonham Daily Favorite , September 3, 1923, p. 1.  "Three Greek journalists have been expelled from Italy, one of them being Elefteros Typos."
  70. ↑ THE ALBANIAN FRONTIER. . In: The Examiner , National Library of Australia, September 3, 1923, p. 5 Edition: DAILY. Retrieved April 21, 2013.  "It is announced that Albania has reinforced the Greco-Albanian frontier. Guards prohibit passage across the frontier. A Greek courier carrying delimitation commission papers has been prevented passing."
  71. ↑ ANOTHER BALKAN WAS THREATENED. . In: The Recorder , National Library of Australia, September 8, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved June 26, 2013.  "Serbian newspapers are already declaring that Serbia will support Greece."
  72. ↑ ANOTHER BALKAN WAS THREATENED. . In: The Recorder , National Library of Australia, September 8, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved June 26, 2013.  "Reports from Turkey show that a section of opinion is already urging Kemal Pasha to seize the opportunity to invade Western Thrace. "
  73. ↑ a b Terms Bombardment Of Corfu Unjustified . In: Reading Eagle , Sep 9, 1923, p. 14. Retrieved June 26, 2013. 
  74. ↑ Doctor Says Corfu Capture Was Marked By Wanton Killing . In: Toledo Blade , September 13, 1923, p. 8. 
  75. ↑ a b GCSE History Notes , p. 19.
  76. ^ Allan Todd: The Modern World . Oxford University Press , 2001, ISBN 978-0-19-913425-0 , p. 55. "Greece asked the League for help, but Mussolini ignored the League as he argued it was a Conference of Ambassabors' matter."
  77. ↑ CORFU INCIDENT . In: Hawera & Normanby Star , September 7, 1923, p. 5. 
  78. ↑ a b c James Burgwyn: Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period: from 1918 to 1940 . Praeger, April 1997, ISBN 978-0-275-94877-1 , p. 23.
  79. ^ Karl J. Schmidt: The League of Nations (en), accessed on June 25, 2017.
  80. ↑ TERMS FOR GREECE. . In: The Argus , National Library of Australia, September 10, 1923, p. 12. Retrieved March 20, 2013. 
  81. ↑ Ambassadors' Decisions. . In: The Examiner , National Library of Australia, September 11, 1923, p. 5 Edition: DAILY. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "Greece has replied to the Note of the conference of Ambassadors, announcing a readiness to conform with the conference's decision."
  82. ↑ ITALY TRIUMPHANT. . In: The Advocate , National Library of Australia, September 11, 1923, p. 1. Retrieved March 18, 2013. 
  83. ↑ EVACUATION OF CORFU. . In: The Register , National Library of Australia, September 15, 1923, p. 15. Retrieved March 20, 2013. 
  84. ↑ EVACUATION OF CORFU. . In: Singleton Argus , National Library of Australia, September 29, 1923, p. 5. Retrieved March 20, 2013.  "The award of the Ambassadors' Conference with respect to Janina has been confirmed, and the matter is declared to be settled , except that Italy reserves the right of recourse to an International Court of Justice in connection with the occupation expenses. "
  85. ↑ PRACTICALLY UNOBSERVED. . In: The Brisbane Courier , National Library of Australia, September 29, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "The news of the evacuation at Corfu was almost unobserved owing to the general depression through Italy obtaining practically, everything she demanded. "
  86. ↑ THE EVACUATION. . In: The Brisbane Courier , National Library of Australia, September 29, 1923, p. 7. Retrieved March 20, 2013.  "The Italian flag was lowered and salutes from the Italian fleet and a Greek destroyer. The Italian flagship saluted the Greek flag when it was hoisted. "
  87. ↑ EVACUATION OF CORFU. . In: Kalgoorlie Miner , National Library of Australia, September 29, 1923, p. 5. Retrieved March 20, 2013. 
  88. ↑ FLEET WAITS FOR PAYMENT. . In: Kalgoorlie Miner , National Library of Australia, September 29, 1923, p. 5. Retrieved March 17, 2013.  "The Italians have not completed the evacuation of Corfu. Although the troops have left the Italian squadron has been ordered to remain till Italy actually receives the fifty million lire, payable by Greece. "
  89. ↑ EVACUATION OF CORFU. . In: Kalgoorlie Miner , National Library of Australia, October 1, 1923, p. 5. Retrieved March 20, 2013.  "The return of the Italian fleet to Corfu was due to the fact that the fifty million lire deposited in a Swiss bank were at the disposal of The Hague Tribunal and the bank refused to transfer the money to Rome without the authority of the Greek National Bank, which was given yesterday evening. "
  90. ↑ EVACUATION OF CORFU. . In: Western Argus , National Library of Australia, October 2, 1923, p. 21. Retrieved March 20, 2013.  "Corfu, Sept. 30. The Italian fleet, all except one destroyer, has now departed."
  91. ↑ Tony Jaques: Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century . Greenwood, November 2006, ISBN 978-0-313-33537-2 , p. 262. "..., enhancing the reputation of Mussolini, who then annexed Fiume"
  92. ↑ James Burgwyn: Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period: 1918-1940 . Praeger, April 1997, ISBN 978-0-275-94877-1 , p. 24. "Improvised and incoherent, Mussolini's gunboat diplomacy failed to add Corfu to Italy's possession, but it did successfully fulfill demagogic and propagandistic aims within the country."
  93. ↑ Peter Neville: Mussolini . Routledge, December 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-24990-4 , p. 93. "There is no doubt that Mussolini's occupation of Corfu had widespread support at home."
  94. ↑ Elaine Thomopoulos: The History of Greece . Greenwood, December 2011, ISBN 978-0-313-37511-8 , p. 109. "Incensed by Italy's act of aggression, the Corfiots stopped playing Italian operas at their theater."
  95. ^ Municipality of Corfu Official Website. (2008) History of the municipal theater via the Internet Archive After 1923, when Italy bombarded Corfu, the Italian operas ceased to appear in Corfu. From that time on Greek operas were called under the direction of the maestros Dionisius Lavrangas, Alexandros Kiparissis, Stefanos Valtetsiotis and others. Since then, dramatic plays were also staged and artists like Marika Kotopouli and Pelos Katselis appeared in Corfu, as well as many operettas of the time "
  96. ^ The Brisbane Courier. . In: The Brisbane Courier , National Library of Australia, September 11, 1923, p. 4. Retrieved January 31, 2013.  "... because there is not the slightest doubt that the real cause of trouble is that old disturbing" Adriatic question "which has been the cause of many Balkan troubles, and is likely to be the cause of many more."
  97. ^ The Register. ADELAIDE: MONDAY, Sept. 24, 1923. . In: The Register , National Library of Australia, September 24, 1923, p. 6. Retrieved January 31, 2013.  "But, though deprived of a base which would have made her control of the Adriatic more secure, ...."
  98. ^ A b Peter J. Yearwood: 'Consistently with Honor': Great Britain, the League of Nations and the Corfu Crisis of 1923 . In: Journal of Contemporary History . tape 21 , no. 4 , 1986, pp. 559-579 , JSTOR : 260586 .
  99. ^ Ciaran O'Connell: GCSE History Paper 1 Revision Guide , p. 15.
  100. ↑ a b Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy 2004, ISBN 978-0-8264-7301-1 , p. 214.
  101. ^ The Corfu incident . IME.
  102. ↑ Tony Jaques: of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century . Greenwood, November 2006, ISBN 978-0-313-33537-2 , p. 262. “ …, enhancing the reputation of Mussolini, who then annexed Fiume ”
  103. ↑ H. James Burgwyn: Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1940 . Praeger, Westport, Conn. 1997, ISBN 0-275-94877-3 , pp. 24 (English, books.google.com ): “Improvised and incoherent, Mussolini's gunboat diplomacy failed to add Corfu to Italy's possession, but it did successfully fulfill demagogic and propagandistic aims within the country.”
  104. ^ Peter Neville: Mussolini (=  Routledge historical biographies ). Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, London / New York 2003, ISBN 0-415-24989-9 , pp. 93 (English): “There is no doubt that Mussolini's occupation of Corfu had widespread support at home.”
  105. ^ Corfu, Italian Occupation (1923) . In: Dead Country Stamps and Banknotes .
  106. ^ Tony Clayton: Italian Post Offices - Corfu . In: italianstamps.co.uk .