Kratom tree

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kratom tree
Young kratom tree

Young kratom tree

Systematics
Order : Enzianartige (Gentianales)
Family : Red family (Rubiaceae)
Subfamily : Cinchonoideae
Tribe : Naucleeae
Genre : Mitragyna
Type : Kratom tree
Scientific name
Mitragyna speciosa
( Korth. ) Havil.

The Mitragyna Speciosa ( Mitragyna speciosa ), also Red Sentolbaum called, is a plant species in the genus Mitragyna in the family of the redness plants (Rubiaceae). She is from Malesia .

The harvested leaves are used fresh or dried both as an intoxicant and in pharmacy as a medicinal drug ; the leaves are called Kratom , Biak, Gra-tom, Biak-Biak, Katawn, Krton, Mabog or Mambog. The main alkaloids of the leaves are the psychoactive substances mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine , which have only been detected in this species.

description

illustration
Leaves and inflorescences
Young specimen in the greenhouse

Vegetative characteristics

The kratom tree grows as a semi-evergreen tree and reaches heights of 10 to 25 meters. The bark is gray-brown and thick and slightly furrowed with age.

The oppositely arranged, slightly leathery to papery leaves are divided into a petiole and a leaf blade. The leaf stalks are 2 to 5 centimeters long. The green, simple, pointed to acuminate and entire, almost bald leaf blade is ovoid to elliptical or obovate with a length of 8.5 to 14 centimeters and a width of 5 to 10 centimeters . The leaf base is truncated to pointed or slightly heart-shaped. The veins are pinnate with curved side veins and are embossed on the top and raised on the underside. There are larger stipules .

The following important information is missing from this article or section:
at least the generative characteristics are only marginally described or not at all
Help Wikipedia by researching and pasting it .

Generative characteristics

At the end of the inflorescence shafts are the relatively small, spherical inflorescences with a diameter of 1 to 1.3 centimeters . The sitting flowers are located above the relatively small bracts .

The up to about 6 millimeters long, funnel-shaped, four- or five-fold flowers with a double flower envelope are initially cream-colored, yellowish-white and later yellow to orange. The small, cup-shaped chalice is trimmed with minimal lobes. The crown is funnel-shaped fused with a hairy inside, up to 5 millimeters long corolla tube and free, elongated, smaller and pointed, up to 3 millimeters long corolla lobes. The very short stamens are attached to the upper edge of the corolla tube. The lower ovary is two-chambered. The long and protruding stylus ends in a cone-shaped scar . There is a discus .

The rounded and brown, woody, bumpy fruit associations are 2 to 3 centimeters in size and contain many relatively small capsule fruits. The 7 to 9 millimeter long, bald and ribbed capsule fruit opens septicidally and often has calyx and disc remains at the top. The capsule fruit contains many relatively small seeds. The narrow, spindle-shaped seeds are short winged at both ends.

Occurrence

The kratom tree can be found in Thailand and from the northern Malay Peninsula to Borneo and New Guinea . It grows in lowland forests and in swampy areas. Most of the kratom used for commercial sale is grown in Indonesia because, unlike Thailand, it is legal there.

Front and back of kratom leaves

Ingredients and effects

With up to 66% of the total alkaloids, mitragynine is the main component in the ripe leaves. The indole alkaloid interacts mainly with the μ- and δ- opioid receptors , but shows little receptor affinity. So far, no addictive mechanisms of action could be proven, mitragynine apparently does not intervene in the body's reward system.

The active ingredient 7-hydroxymitragynine, about 2% of which is contained in the dried leaf material, acts as an agonist on the µ-opioid receptor and has a strong analgesic effect. The reduction in the perception of pain was confirmed in animal experiments with the result that the antinociceptive effect of the alkaloid 7-hydroxymitragynine was thirteen times stronger than morphine . The pure alkaloid mitragynine increases the excitability of the cranio-sacral (skull-sacrum) and the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system, and also increases the excitability of the medulla oblongata and the motor centers of the CNS. In addition, experiments with rats confirmed that kratom has a positive effect on the gastrointestinal tract in the case of diarrhea.

With chronic use of kratom, loss of appetite, weight loss, and hyperpigmentation can occur. Typical physical withdrawal syndromes are muscle cramps, pain, difficulty sleeping, watery eyes and nose, heat attacks, fever, decreased appetite and diarrhea. Typical psychological withdrawal syndromes are restlessness, tension, anger, sadness and nervousness. At least one case is known in which intrahepatic cholestasis developed after taking kratom for several weeks . Other side effects such as nausea, vomiting, and tremors have also been reported.

There are three types of kratom: with white, red and green leaf veins. The different varieties have a different composition in terms of the alkaloids they contain. The mitragynine content depends on the location and the season. While varieties with white leaf veins are said to have an activating effect, varieties with red leaf veins are said to have a more sedative effect. Basically, it can be said that low doses tend to have an activating and euphoric effect and higher doses have a sedative effect. Since, as expected, there are many different varieties in nature and the content of the alkaloids also depends on various location factors and climatic influences, this should only be viewed as a rough classification. Studies in this regard do not yet exist.

consumption

The indigenous population of the Malay region already used kratom as a remedy and stimulant. The name Kratom is probably derived from the term Kadamb , which is used on the Indian subcontinent as a name for Mitragyna parvifolia and is also considered a sacred crop. The Malay and Muslim minorities in the provinces of Narathiwat , Yala and Pattani in particular use kratom as a traditional luxury food.

Traditionally, the fresh kratom leaves are chewed in teahouses and cafes. Consumption is usually tied into a social setting that is not unlike a coffee party . The leaf veins are removed before consumption.

The preparation as an infusion has also been handed down. Traditionally, the tea-like drink is prepared with fresh leaves, the use of fruit juices or sweeteners varies regionally and seems to have mainly culinary reasons. It was not until the 20th century that the use of dried plant material became common. The effect of the bitter drink is described in the literature as stimulating.

The use of a smokable extract is described in historical literature, but it does not seem to be common nowadays. The effect of smoked plant material is controversial, presumably a rather subtle effect can be achieved with it.

Lately drug cocktails with the name "4x100" have also been produced in Asia. A kratom brew is combined with cough syrup containing morphine , cola , tramadol and allegedly other very harmful ingredients such as pesticides to create a more potent drug cocktail. In fact, outside of the tabloids, there is little evidence of the admixture of these harmful ingredients; rather, this is viewed in professional circles as an unfounded claim by the Thai government.

It was not until late summer 2012 that two young women from Australia died, whereupon the Thai authorities demonstratively cut down and burned some kratom trees on the island of Phuket . The cause of the death was not the substances contained in kratom. On the contrary, if this cocktail is consumed excessively, there is a risk of respiratory depression due to potentiation of the morphine-containing cough syrup.

Pharmaceutical history

As early as the 19th century, kratom was used as an opiate substitute ( Malaysia ) and served to cure both opiate addiction and diarrhea (Thailand). Workers and farmers consumed the leaves or their extracts to do heavy labor under the scorching heat of the sun. In 1897 kratom was first mentioned as a remedy for opiate addiction. In addition to its use as a remedy for the withdrawal symptoms that occur in opiate addiction, kratom was used as a wound dressing and as a remedy for fever. Phytochemical research into kratom began in 1920.

Legal status

Germany

In Germany, kratom is not listed in the Narcotics Act , but for a long time it was disputed whether it falls under the Medicines Act . However, according to a judgment of the Cologne Higher Regional Court on September 11, 2015, kratom is not a medicinal product, so trade, possession and consumption are generally permitted under the current legal situation. For legal protection, retailers are nevertheless recommended not to offer kratom expressly for human consumption, but only as a coloring and smoking agent.

Austria

In Austria, kratom is not subject to the Narcotics Act.

Switzerland

In Switzerland, the active ingredients mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine have been subject to directory a (controlled substances that are subject to all control measures) of the Narcotics Act since October 2017 , making kratom illegal.

Other EU countries

In Denmark, Latvia , Lithuania , Poland, Romania , Italy and Sweden, kratom is one of the legally controlled substances. In France, it has been forbidden to buy or own kratom since 2020.

Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar and Australia

The cultivation of the kratom tree was banned in Thailand as early as 1943; existing plants had to be felled. The ban was based on circumventing opium taxes, which were being raised at the time. Due to rising costs, many opium users switched to kratom. Thailand's entry into the Pacific War in 1942 required higher tax revenues, and therefore kratom was banned to stifle competition in the opioid business. Today the possession and consumption of kratom is banned in Thailand, Malaysia and Myanmar .

Since autumn 2013, there has been serious discussion in Thailand of legalizing kratom on the initiative of the Minister of Health and other ministries. After renewed political protests in December 2013, this issue faded into the background again. The Thai Ministry of Health sees many benefits from kratom, such as: B. with drug withdrawal from Yaba ( methamphetamine ) or heroin; Furthermore, cost savings were calculated compared to expensive synthetic strong opioids, which usually have to be imported. In addition, the addiction potential is classified as nonexistent to very low.

In Australia, kratom is classified on Schedule 9 (Prohibited Substance).

United States of America

As of May 2016, kratom was illegal in Alabama , Arkansas , Indiana, Tennessee , Vermont, and Wisconsin, as well as in the U.S. Army.

See also

literature

Web links

Commons : Kratom Tree ( Mitragyna speciosa )  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) at the European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction , accessed on July 10, 2013.
  2. ↑ a b c Philippine Department of Agriculture - Bureau of Plant Industry : Entry Mambog (English) ( Memento from June 24, 2013 in the Internet Archive ).
  3. ↑ Mitragyna at homepage Ch. Puff, Univ. Vienna .
  4. ↑ Rafaël Govaerts, 2003: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families Database in ACCESS: 1-216203. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Rafaël Govaerts (Ed.): Mitragyna speciosa. In: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) - The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Accessed June 1, 2020.
  5. ↑ a b c Nor Aini Saidin: Cytotoxicity of extract of Malaysian Mitragyna Speciosa Korth and its dominant alkaloid Mitragynine. Dissertation, Imperial College London, 2008, online at scribd.com.
  6. ↑ András Váradi, Gina F. Marrone, Travis C. Palmer, Ankita Narayan, Márton R. Szabó: Mitragynine / Corynantheidine Pseudoindoxyls As Opioid Analgesics with Mu Agonism and Delta Antagonism, Which Do Not Recruit β-Arrestin-2 . In: Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . tape 59 , no. 18 , 22 September 2016, ISSN  0022-2623 , p. 8381-8397 , doi : 10.1021 / acs.jmedchem.6b00748 , PMID 27556704 , PMC 5344672 (free full text).
  7. ↑ Zurina Hassan, Mustapha Muzaimi, Visweswaran Navaratnam, Nurul HM Yusoff, Farah W. Suhaimi: From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: Physiological and behavioral effects related to use, abuse, and addiction . In: Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews . tape 37 , no. 2 , February 1, 2013, ISSN  0149-7634 , p. 138–151 , doi : 10.1016 / j.neubiorev.2012.11.012 ( sciencedirect.com [accessed January 12, 2020]).
  8. ↑ Zurina Hassan, Mustapha Muzaimi, Visweswaran Navaratnam, Nurul HM Yusoff, Farah W. Suhaimi: From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: Physiological and behavioral effects related to use, abuse, and addiction . In: Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews . tape 37 , no. 2 , February 1, 2013, ISSN  0149-7634 , p. 138–151 , doi : 10.1016 / j.neubiorev.2012.11.012 ( sciencedirect.com [accessed January 12, 2020]).
  9. ↑ K. Matsumoto, S. Horie, H. Takayama et al .: Antinociception, tolerance and withdrawal symptoms induced by 7-hydroxymitragynine, an alkaloid from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa.
  10. ↑ a b c S. Chittrakarn, K. Sawangjaroen, S. Prasettho, B. Janchawee, N. Keawpradub: Inhibitory effects of kratom leaf extract (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) On the rat gastrointestinal tract. In: Journal of ethnopharmacology. Volume 116, Number 1, February 2008, pp. 173-178, doi : 10.1016 / j.jep.2007.11.032 , PMID 18191353 .
  11. ↑ D. Singh, CP Müller, BK Vicknasingam: Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. In: Drug and alcohol dependence. Volume 139, June 2014, pp. 132-137, doi : 10.1016 / j.drugalcdep.2014.03.017 , PMID 24698080 .
  12. ↑ E. Cinosi, G. Martinotti, P. Simonato et al .: Following "the roots" of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): The Evolution of an enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in western countries. In: BioMed research international. Volume 2015, 2015, p. 968786, doi : 10.1155 / 2015/968786 , PMID 26640804 , PMC 4657101 (free full text) (review).
  13. ↑ FG Kapp, HH Maurer, V. Auwärter, M. Winkelmann, M. Hermanns-Clausen: Intrahepatic cholestasis following abuse of powdered kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). In: Journal of medical toxicology: official journal of the American College of Medical Toxicology. Volume 7, number 3, September 2011, pp. 227-231, doi : 10.1007 / s13181-011-0155-5 , PMID 21528385 , PMC 3550198 (free full text).
  14. ^ A b c The Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Forensic Sciences: Microgram Bulletin. (PDF, online) ( Memento from August 30, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  15. ↑ Somsmorn Chittrakarn, Pimpimol Penjamras, Niwat Keawpradub: Quantitative analysis of mitragynine, codeine, caffeine, chlorpheniramine and phenylephrine in a kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Cocktail using high-performance liquid chromatography . In: Forensic Science International . tape 217 , no. 1 , April 10, 2012, ISSN  0379-0738 , p. 81–86 , doi : 10.1016 / j.forsciint.2011.10.027 ( sciencedirect.com [accessed January 12, 2020]).
  16. ↑ Robert B. Raffa: The Botany of Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. and Related Species. October 29, 2014, accessed January 12, 2020 .
  17. ↑ Nachtschatten Verlag Solothurn: Kratom Ethnobotanik, Application, Culture . Solothurn, ISBN 978-3-03788-576-5 .
  18. ↑ Nachtschatten Verlag Solothurn: Kratom Ethnobotanik, Application, Culture . Solothurn, ISBN 978-3-03788-576-5 .
  19. ↑ Nachtschatten Verlag Solothurn: Kratom Ethnobotanik, Application, Culture . Solothurn, ISBN 978-3-03788-576-5 .
  20. ↑ Zurina Hassan, Mustapha Muzaimi, Visweswaran Navaratnam, Nurul HM Yusoff, Farah W. Suhaimi: From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: Physiological and behavioral effects related to use, abuse, and addiction . In: Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews . tape 37 , no. 2 , February 1, 2013, ISSN  0149-7634 , p. 138–151 , doi : 10.1016 / j.neubiorev.2012.11.012 ( sciencedirect.com [accessed January 12, 2020]).
  21. ↑ Nachtschatten Verlag Solothurn: Kratom Ethnobotanik, Application, Culture . Solothurn, ISBN 978-3-03788-576-5 .
  22. ^ Wray: Biak: An opium substitute . In: Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums . tape 53 , 1907.
  23. ^ Rätsch, Christian, 1957-: Lexicon of magic plants: from an antological point of view . License edition. ISBN 3-928127-07-1 .
  24. ↑ Pascal Tanguay: Kratom in Thailand . ID 1908849. Social Science Research Network, Rochester, NY April 1, 2011, doi : 10.2139 / ssrn.1908849 ( ssrn.com [accessed January 12, 2020]).
  25. ↑ Mariko Kitajima, Kaori Misawa et al .: A new indole alkaloid, 7-hydroxyspeciociliatine, from the fruits of Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa and its opioid agonistic activity. In: Journal of Natural Medicines. Volume 60, 2006, p. 28, doi : 10.1007 / s11418-005-0001-7 .
  26. ↑ OLG Cologne, decision of 11.09.2015 - 1 RVs 131 .
  27. ↑ Legal - Is Kratom Legal? on kratomratgeber.de.
  28. ^ Kratom and the law on kratominfo.eu .
  29. ^ Federal legal information system RIS ; Consolidated federal law: Entire legal provision for the Narcotics Act , version of 14 July 2019. online .
  30. ^ Ordinance of the EDI on the lists of narcotics, psychotropic substances, precursors and auxiliary chemicals (Narcotics Directory Ordinance, BetmVV-EDI) - amendment of August 18, 2017. Accessed on July 4, 2019 .
  31. ^ La France interdit l'achat et la détention de kratom, une plante psychotrope In: L'Express. January 8, 2020.
  32. ↑ Sangun Suwanlert: A study of kratom eaters in Thailand. Online at the United Nations Office On Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (accessed July 28, 2010).
  33. ↑ Kratom in Thailand: Decriminalization and Community Control? Proposal by the Thai Office of the Narcotics Control Board (PDF; 979 kB, online) .
  34. ^ Coconuts Bangkok: Government considering legalizing Kratom online at Coconuts Bangkok .
  35. ↑ National Drugs and Poisons Schedule Committee: Edited Minutes of Meeting 39 - October 2003. (PDF, online) ( Memento of the original from March 3, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.tga.gov.au
  36. ↑ States ban kratom supplement over abuse worries . In: Associated Press via US News & World Report , May 20, 2016. 
  37. ^ Kratom, an Addict's Alternative, Is Found to Be Addictive Itself . In: The New York Times , January 2, 2016.