Messiah (Klopstock)

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The Messiah (edition 1749)

The Messiah , a heroic poem, is a religious epic in 20 songs by Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock from 1773 . The author is the first in German literary history to use continuous hexameters and is thus based on Homer's epics ( Iliad and Odyssey ). In terms of content, The Messiah opens the epoch of sensitivity in Germany .

content

overview

Klopstock's epic composes the passion story of Jesus and his resurrection in 20 songs and almost 20,000 verses according to the Gospel of Matthew , chap. 26–28 (or the Gospel of Mark chap. 14 and the Gospel of Luke chap. 22) beginning with his prayer on the Mount of Olives . The author expands the events of the fable core, which is focused on Jesus in a few chapters, to include parallel plots (Maria, Portia, Thomas, etc.) and transcendental scenes, richly painted with many pictures, based on motifs from the Old and New Testaments and the Apocalypse : The people become accompanied by angels who wage a cosmic war against the demons of the hell realm. The first two chants introduce the camps in their polarity: In the first, the author describes Gabriel's journey through space to Jehovah's court, formed by archangels. The second song describes Satan's dark counterworld with its demons. They fight for the souls of people who often appear as de-individualized beings led by supernatural forces. The seduction to evil is demonstrated in angels as well as humans: e.g. E.g. in the sinful, repentant Abbadona , who in the course of the action tries again and again to approach the suffering Jesus and divine district (especially 2nd, 5th, 9th song), or in the story of Judas .

The author assumes knowledge of the Old and New Testaments when appearing or mentioning many people and when referring to their life stories. In the surreal scenes he has invented, he cites communications from his muse Sionitin, the seer of God. Often the events from both sources are mirrored, indirectly described, so the reader experiences the disciples of Jesus at first with the eyes of their guardian angels, who talk to the messenger angel about them, or in the observation of another person, e.g. B. Peter's denial from Portia's perspective (Canto 6). Incorporated into such conversations are information, for example, about Jesus' life story and the characters of his disciples (3rd song), but also freely invented characters. As in a great mystery play , the souls of Old Testament characters enter again and again. B. the forefathers and forefathers, the prophets, the kings, but also the future Christians who were still unborn at the time of the crucifixion set the scene.

First song: The Kingdom of Heaven
Second song: Hell
Third chant: The disciples and their guardian angels
Canto Four: The Lord's Supper and Judas' betrayal
Canto Fifth: Prayer in Gethsemane
Canto Six and Seventh: Capture and Judgment
Chants eight to ten: Crucifixion
Canto 11: Resurrection of the Dead
Song 12: Entombment
Song thirteenth: Resurrection of Jesus
Canto Fourteenth: The Empty Tomb and Apparitions to Jesus
Canto 15: The proclamation of the message of the resurrection
Canto Sixteenth: The judgment on Satan and his demons of the underworld
Song seventeenth: proclamation of the message by the witnesses
Song Eighteenth: Adam's Vision of the Last Judgment
Song nineteenth: Jesus' last apparition before his ascension to heaven
Canto Twentieth: Hymns of praise for the multitudes going up to heaven with Jesus

First chant

In his nocturnal prayer on the Mount of Olives, Jesus asks the angry Father for forgiveness for sinful people, reminds of the common plan and his role as “mediator” between God and man. He offers his “blood of reconciliation” (v. 99) in order to “recreate the image of the Godhead in man” (v. 98). The main part is about the spherical journey of the divine messenger Gabriel, who is the companion of the Son of God on earth, through the ethereal stream to the center of light to convey the prayer to Jehovah and to hear his decision. The description of the creation of heaven and its light forms is included in the hymn about the divine world. At the request of Eloa (“the next to the uncreated”, v. 288) and Urims not to judge the world and to punish it with eternal death, Gabriel returns to the Mount of Olives with the divine message “God is love” and man's Redeemer back.

Second song

The Messiah rises in the morning sun, accompanied by the soul songs of Adam and Eve, in which they praise Our Lady. Together with the angel Raphael , the protector of his disciple John, he descends the Mount of Olives to the tombs of the dead and meets Satan- possessed Samma, who has killed his little son Benoni out of desperation over the death of a son and wants to throw himself down a cliff . Jesus drives out Satan, who wants to oppose him as “king of the world” and “the supreme deity of unslavish spirits” (v. 173), who plagues Jesus “beloved men” (v. 184), and wants to oppose him as of "mortal [n [...] god-dreaming seers" (v. 175, 180) born to a woman mocked and freed Samma from his power. Because he cannot bear the light of heaven, Satan flees into eternal darkness. This place of damnation is guarded by two angels on “God's command”, “so that Satan does not boldly storm creation with his darkened burden, \ And disfigure the face of beautiful nature through desolation” (v. 266-268) Satan on other rebellious and destructive demons whom Jehovah has cast out in the depths: Adramelech , who wants to destroy everything as the negation of creation, Moloch , Belielel , Magog and "a thousand times a thousand [condemned] spirits" (v. 408). If they have not been able to conquer heaven, they do not want to give up their dominion over mortals. In a critical assessment, Satan now tells the Jewish Messiah vision and the story of the earthly God, who wants to forgive the sins of the dead souls and thus wrest them from the kingdom of hell. To prevent this, Satan incites people against Jesus, he began with Herod. You should kill him, then his body will fall apart. With the consent of all demons, Satan and Adramelech travel to the Mount of Olives.

Third chant

The story of the Mount of Olives continues with the disciples' search for their sleeping master, who is sheltered from higher regions: "The holy rest \ hurried, sent by God, from the most holy of God \ down in quiet scents, and cooling whispers. \ Jesus slept ”(vv. 100-103). The seraph Selia was sent as an observer of the sky. He sees the followers of Jesus and is introduced to them through the angels whom Jesus has assigned to them: Simon (through Orion), Andrew (through Sipha), Philip (through Libaniel), James (through Adona), Simon (through Megiddon) , Jakobus der Alphäide (through Adoram), Thomas (through Umbriel), Matthew (through Bildaï), Bartholomäus (through Siona), Lebbäus (through Elim), Judas (through Ithuriel). Ithurel tells of the changes in Judah's behavior and that she fears his betrayal, as Jesus foretold him at the Lord's Supper, because he is jealous of John , who is praised by Salem, one of his two companions, in contrast to Judas as an example of innocent love . In the last part of the song, Satan sends the sleeping Judas a dream in which his deceased father appears, shows him his disadvantage compared to the other disciples and advises him to hand Jesus over to the priests, first to get money and second to the Messiah force you to give up your peacefulness and fight for power. Ithurel notices the ruse of Satan, who "had already profaned the innocence of the soul" (v. 671-672), and wakes Judas up. He is unsure about the origin of the dream and the message. He curses the place where he slept and the day the Messiah called him to his circle, and he knows that he must now make an irrevocable choice between good and evil: “Your visions do not deceive you. And if they did; \ Can you get it in any other way than what you sigh for? \ So he cried, 'raged', had, since his sight, \ two terrible hours come closer to eternity "(v. 742– 745).

Fourth chant

Similar to Judas, Satan proceeds with the high priest Caiaphas , to whom he sends a "dark visage" (v. 1) in his sleep. The latter calls a meeting of the priests and elders of the people and appeals to them to arrest and judge the false messiah, who with simulated miracles incited the population against the priests. As proof he mentions his dream: “God commands us to quickly wipe it from the face of the earth. […] He must die ”(v. 58, v. 94). Thereupon a theological dispute arises between the Pharisees and the Sadducees , "How deep in the field battle \ warlike horses rise rampantly in front of iron chariots, \ when the ringing lance trembles along" (vv. 179-181). The Pharisee Philo questions the truth of Caiapha's dream prophecies, but agrees with his situation analysis that Jesus was a rebel and not the Son of God. He calls for the defense of the divine revelations and laws of the Old Testament and the killing of Jesus, although "his heart [called] him a hypocrite" (v. 173-174). On the other hand, level-headed voices warn (especially Gamaliel ) that only God alone should judge and people should not shed holy blood. Nicodemus gives a great defense and glowing confession speech for the message of the innocent Jesus, with many examples of his life story refers to his miraculous acts and peaceful sermons about the new covenant of God and eternal life, for which God the Father will sacrifice the life of his Son. Seraph Ithurel sees Nicodemus as the prototype of the new human being and, following the example of Eloa, intones a hymn about creation. The mood of the congregation, pensive through Nicodemus' speech, is turned by the arrival of Judas Iscariot, who receives a reward and is ready to lead her to Jesus.

In the counter-act, which is continued in Canto 7, Mary looks for her son and meets Peter and John. She is accompanied by Lazarus , his sister and "pious hearer Jesus" Maria , Cidli , daughter of Jairus , and Semida , her lover, whom Jesus brought back to life. The mood before Jesus' death is reflected in two inner monologues: Cidli's and Semidal's complaints about their unfulfilled love story invented by the author and the hope for a second, eternal awakening, as well as Mary's review of the childhood and development of Jesus. Her divine Son sees her passing "not with the human eye, with that eye with which he [...] foresaw the thoughts of the Seraph" (v. 922-924), and promises to have "mercy on her, \ If [he ] rise "(vv. 926-927). He is preparing for Golgotha, knowing about the betrayal of Judas, who, "already the expression of innocence \ In the deceiving cheerful face" (v. 985-956) "mingles silently \ among the saints" (v. 984–985 ) when his guardian angel Ithuriel informed him about the apostasy of the disciple. He now rushes to the last festive meal with the disciples and eats the “Lamb of the Covenant” with them. By handing over a piece of bread “full of friendship” (v. 1203) he signals to Judas that he sees through him. The latter leaves him in anger, wants to see him humiliated by his capture and to test his divinity: "When he dies, it is a coincidence that he escaped the enemy so often! So he's a dreamer, \ And not sent by God. Our ways too, \ are consecrated to the God of Gods! They always hated him! \ And they act according to the law of Moses! I am their confidante! \ But he will not die! ”(Vv. 1222–1227). In his programmatic farewell sermon, Jesus explains his mission, that he is God and that he sacrifices his life for sinful people in order to bring about their resurrection and their eternal life, a new creation. He exhorts the disciples to love one another and prays to the Father to reward them with eternal life. Then he goes with his eleven disciples to the garden at the foot of the Mount of Olives, where Gabriel gathers the angels.

Fifth chant

The action now enters the phase of decision between the condemnation and pardon of the sinful people deceived by Satan. God angry about the sinful world “with the terrible look” (v. 49) descends from the higher spheres through the regions of the starry sky to earth: “I descend to judge God the Messiah, \ who between me, and that Human race has presented itself, \ stands there, is God-man, and awaits my judgment ”(vv. 53-55). On his way through space, he is first summoned by Eloa, then by the six souls of the wise men from the Orient (with the names Hadad, Selima, Simri, Mirja, Beled, Sunith invented by the author) not to judge the earth according to strict law but to spare mercifully and in the spirit of his God Son to redeem the faithful from eternal death. Then a human family describes to him, the immortal, the horrors of dying and the hope of eternal life through the Messiah. Wrapped in midnight from Mount Tabor , the Judge God looks upon the sinners of the human race, while Eloa rises again to heaven and calls to the Mount of Olives: "Is there one under the heavens, \ Who, instead of the human race, wants to appear in judgment, \ This one." come before God ”(vv. 339–341). Jesus hears him, leaves Gethsemane and hurries alone into solitude. It is a situation of existential need in the midst of the hostile cosmic powers: "Blood ran from the face of the sufferer. \ He lifted himself up from the dust, stretched his arms towards heaven; \ Tears flowed into the blood" (v. 381–383) and he prays to the god of judges: "Stop pouring out the horrors of death on me! But not my will be done! [...] I suffer! \ I am forever like you! [...] And then before his thoughts of eternal death \ horror figures passed by. He saw the rejected souls, \ Who cursed the days of creation, the caller to eternity! \ Heard the muffled howling of the echoing abyss; \ Thundering rivers hurled down from rocks, \ On the thundering rivers, the voice of fear winged; [...] Then, in an infinite sigh of old despair \ Poured out, the voice of the human race revolted, \ Accused the Creator of creation, who was, and will be, of existence, \ and of eternity. Godman felt their misery! ”(Vv. 403–404, 412–413, 416–421, 424–426). Adramelech has watched him from a deserted rock and approaches him with mockery, but the Messiah sends him back to his nothing with the expression of the Last Judgment. Jesus returned to his sleeping disciples, who were too weak to stay awake and pray “that the tempter may not come upon [them]” (v. 479) and is encouraged to go to judgment “to suffer for all “(V. 485). Through the suffering of the Son of God, Jehovah is brought closer to the plight of sinful people and he decides to redeem people from eternal death and to begin a new covenant with them after Jesus agreed for the third time to judge himself in place of people to let. Then Jehovah “ascends to the eternal throne” again (v. 828) and lets Eloa bring Jesus the good news that he has been reconciled through “the suffering of death, \ and with the blood [...] \ when he becomes king , raised to the right hand of God ”(v. 727–729). The continuation (2nd song) of the story of the angel Abbadona, who repents of his apostasy from God, is switched on in this conflict situation. At the sight of Jesus praying he realizes that in this "depths [are] hidden, \ whose abyss is invisible to [him], labyrinths \ of God!" (V. 605-607), and complains that the Messiah is only interested in redemption of people, but not for those of sinful angels.

Sixth chant

The action handed down in the Gospels now comes to the fore more than the fictitious one. As a basis for his presentation, the author combines the reports in John's Gospel , chap. 18 (weakness of the bailiff during arrest, interrogation of Hannas ), in the Gospels of Luke (Herod), in the Gospels of Matthew and in the Gospels of Mark: The Messiah is recognized by a crowd of armed men at the graves at night, observed by Satan, through the kiss of Judas, captured and brought to the high priest Caiaphas, who, with the help of bribed witnesses, accuses him of blasphemy on account of various violations of the law and the presumption of being king of the Jews. Jesus confesses to be God's Son and is sentenced to death. In defense, the author has the disciple John praying for Jesus' life and Peter, who accuses himself of infidelity in his long accusation at the end of the song, as well as the fictional figure of Portia, Pilate's wife . On the metaphysical level it is the angel Obaddon , who threatens Philos with death because of his inhuman accusation and forces him to break off his speech, as well as Eloa and Gabriel, who speak in dialogue about the mysteries of creation and about the judgment of the world: “Like all Created \ unfathomable is God's secret! [...] but a miracle, \ How the humiliation of the son to this depth, did not happen! \ He, whom Jehovah first judged from the thundering Tabor! who endured the judgment with this divinity \ Me, with a look that brought back angelic shimmer! […] In front of the bones of the dead, \ Seized by the prevailing storm of the new creation. \ Awaken once "(vv. 490-500).

Seventh chant

The court hearing with the Roman governor Pilate is incorporated into a metaphysical framework, on the one hand the praise of the archangels for the new covenant with mankind agreed by God the Father and Son, and on the other hand the inciting of the priests by the demons to slander Jesus as a rebel and seducer of the people who declares himself not responsible when Jesus confesses that he is not an earthly king and hands him over to King Herod. He demands a miracle as proof of his divinity, mocks him when Jesus refuses, and sends him back to Pilate. The latter wants to release him, but is coming under increasing pressure from the people incited by the priests, who have wanted a strong leader and are now disappointed by his passive behavior. As a last attempt at rescue, Pilate leaves the decision to the people as a festive gift to pardon Jesus or the murderer Barrabas . Philo gives a speech against Jesus and thus leads the wavering audience to demand the crucifixion. These processes are observed by the helpless followers of the Messiah. The angel of death "now hovers \ dreadfully, with perdition, armed with God's horror, \ over Juda's realms to consecrate the people to judgment" (v. 774-776).

The court scene is interrupted by two events: the repentant Judas returns his silver coins to the priests, flees the city and strangles himself in despair over his betrayal. The angel of death Obaddon condemns his soul to hell. Mary continues to look for Jesus (4th song) and comes to Pilate's palace, where she complains to Portia of her fear for her son. Portia admires Jesus and tells of her dream: “A man pouring blood went into the clouds where they opened. Crowds of innumerable people scattered \ themselves on the graves, and looked with open longing arms \ after that bleeding man who went into the clouds. ”(V. 439-441) Mary is reminded of the early prophecies that her son should redeem people . Only now does she understand their meaning. With her friends, she has to watch the increasing radicalization of the people.

Eighth chant

The representation of human suffering from the perspective of Jesus is focused on his prayers in Getsemane (Canto 5). His path to Golgotha ​​and the crucifixion are described less than in their external course in the Gospels, but rather from the different reactions of human and heavenly viewers to his death. The angels see the sacrifice on the "altar" in a transfigured light of harmony. There is a solemn, devout atmosphere. A circle of angels follows the action from the clouds. Satan and Adramelech, who “float in wild triumphs” (v. 127), are driven away by the “splendor of this most celebrated day before all days of celebration” (v. 123–124) by Eloa, who wrote a hymn to redemption from Death sings: "O who approaches the altar, to die the most beautiful \ And the most wonderful death, you human! Creator! ”(Vv. 43-44). The angels watch the crucifixion with silence and amazement. They cheer and cry when his first blood flows. Eloa soars "in the heavens of the heavens", flies up into the "depths of the immeasurable, exclaimed: His blood is flowing!" (V. 266, 268). The angels on the suns stand "in celebration, and from the golden altars \ dawns flared up to the judging throne \ Through the vast creation down the sacrifices flamed, \ images of the bleeding sacrifice on the cross: a heavenly sight!" (V. 272– 275). The souls of the ancestors of the Old Testament judge the crucifixion differently, v. a. Adam, “who saw corruption” (v. 231) and thinks of the suffering of Jesus: “You are the one you sacrifice yourself, forever \ You are merciful! Finisher! You gracious sufferer! [...] And now, inexpressible melancholy \ Overcomes me, and penetrates into every depth of the soul! \ Well, now it goes there. ”(Vv. 226-230). When Jesus stands on the cross, he bows to Jehovah. “But from the throne of the dark judgment Jehovah answers. \ From the answer rang out from the depths of the holy of holies \ And the Judging Throne shook. The cruisers approached the Reconciler ”(vv. 237–240). Then the author moves to the redemption of the repentant crucified at Jesus' side and then travels with Uriel to the star Adamida, on which the souls of the unborn live, and brings them to the dead Redeemer.

At the end of the chant the perspective changes: “And the immortal harmonies [dissolve] in sighs” (v. 575). The moment of death is represented from “the mortal eye”: “Had God not sent death! How almighty showers shook through the dying man! How he, abandoned by his father, \ Hing on the high cross! ”(V.289, 292–294). Mary stands on the cross, pityed by the first mother Eva, “with hanging head, on sinking feet with a fearful, pale face, with staring eyes, \ empty of tears, she was not given tears for relief! Immobile, and mute, death falls silent! ”(V. 517-520). Angels of death float up and circled the cross seven times, "Her gaze was flame. Her face was ruined! \ Night her robe [...] She had sent the judges from the throne [...] and images of death \ flowed around her, the horror of earth-buried decay" (V. 529-536). “And the covering of the Eternal hung before the mystery \ Immovable” (v. 559-560). Eva laments: "It is true that it is eternal grace \ that [absolves] me, but you die" (v. 581-582).

Ninth song

Peter wanders guiltily about his denial of Jesus while his Guardian Angel tries to calm him down, and meets Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus (Canto 4) who are now ready to openly profess their faith. More and more followers and disciples gather under the cross to mourn the dead: Mary (4th and 7th song) and a group of four women of this name. There is also a large choir of souls, u. a. the forefathers Abraham, Isaac, Moses, to praise the "Reconciler" for the redemption of their people from death. A central question is taken up again in a conversation between the guardian angels Johannes and Marias, Salem and Selith: “What kind of sight is this like to see \ people whom the Eternal loves suffer so? \ But what my astonishment softens with reassurance, \ Is the consolation that God then often sent to those who suffer ”(v. 397-400). This consolation is now also given to Mary. The counter-acts relate to two (yet?) Not redeemed. While Abbadona, who has assumed his former youthful form of the innocent angel of light, is allowed to approach the cross shielded by angels out of Eloa's pity, but cannot endure the sight of the dying man and escapes, Obaddon throws Judas, whom “the hand of judgment has branded his forehead , \ How eternal death has distorted the godforsaken "(vv. 654-655) into the abyss of hell:" This is the judged dwelling, and yours! \ That the earth-born, the sinners, do not all suffer death here, eternal death, Jesus Christ dies on the cross! ”(v. 762-7764).

Tenth song

At the beginning, when the son dies, the author again points out his limited possibilities in grasping the judge god and his intension: “Oh, if it weren't for love \ death, which it died from the beginning of the world; so I fall under the burden of contemplation! There is an abyss on both sides! \ On the left: I shouldn't sing too boldly about the divine! \ Here on the right: I should sing it with solemn appreciation! \ And I am dust! […] You see it all, \ what I think […] and if I stumble, forgive me! \ A glimmer of your light […] is to the thirsty for knowledge, is abundance to the thirsty! ”(Vv. 2-14). "Of everything that is difficult \ to fathom, the hardest thing for me to grasp is: You are suffering, \ God's son!" (V. 193-195). The description of Jehovah, who looks down from his throne “with an unused face, \ At the divine sin-atoner” (vv. 21-22), corresponds with the crucified: “He feels the gaze of the judging Father \ Jesus Christ; knows that Jehovah has not yet been reconciled! ”and“ shuddered by the nearer death \ ”(vv. 26-29) he prays even more urgently for the redemption of the believers. He looks first at the Dead Sea, then at the multitudes of souls that surround him. The condemnation of Satan and Adramelech is faded in, who were disempowered by the “Council of God in Eden” (v. 91) and lowered to the deepest level of their suffering. In repeated changes of perspective, the nested narrative structure of the work becomes clear: the author asks his muse Sionitin to change the scenes, to stop revealing the torments of hell and to direct Jesus' gaze away from the sea of ​​death to the souls of future people who surround his cross consecrated their lives to Jesus through the experience of sacrifice and even became martyrs. Sionitin now presents a long series of Christians who are known from the Apostolic Letters and other traditions. a. Timothy , Antipas , Hermas , Herodion , Epaphras , Flavius ​​Clemens and Lucius . Then in dialogues John and Simeon as well as two Old Testament women, Debora and Mirjam , complain about the dying Jesus. More and more angels and souls of well-known biblical figures who, like Job , have been painfully tried by Jehovah or punished for deviating from his commandments, float around the hill of death. Adam tries to explain to the compassionate Eve the human incomprehensibility of the crucifixion: “We are far too finite to plead with the judge for him. [...] we pleaded in vain [...] no refreshment relieves his last fear of death \ Has the unexplored, to whom he sacrifices himself, decided! ”(V. 741-749). After Adam's prayer, the “messenger of the judging deity” (v. 980) floats up with the judgment: “Jehovah has accepted your divine sacrifice! [...] son! You have submitted to the infinite anger! [...] He alone [...] will leave you until you die the god-atonement death! […] You will die him, divine one! ”(Vv. 1017-1024).

Eleventh chant

The author praises the resurrection of Jesus: "I sang the humiliation of the son; \ Take me up higher to also sing his bliss!" (V.13-14). "Quickly fill the holy halls \ Christ's glory, quickly the Most Holy of God. \ See, it tore [...] the mysterious curtain; And your shadow disappeared from you, made reconciliation! Here Jesus Christ spoke with his Father, with God God, \ From all the perfection of redemption, until the Father \ 's rights were lifted! Because not only the slain God-man, \ Also the risen and exalted God-man \ is the salvation of sinners, and the delight of their faith "(vv. 47-56). And now “every resurrection saved from the death of the soul […] passes before the reconciled one, and before the reconciler!” (V. 72-75). Gabriel now sends the Old Testament forefathers and forefathers, Adam, Eve and their descendants, Noah , Abraham and Sarah , Isaac and Rebecka , Israel and Rachel etc., to their graves, where their soul is one with "the resurrected body", the etheric body ideal physicality, enveloped. They thank them in hymns of praise. In the search for further graves, stories about the persons concerned from Old Testament sources are included, e.g. B. About Joseph and his brothers or prophecies of Isaiah and Daniel , which heralded the end times and the Messiah. The scene changes temporarily to Golgotha: At the request of the high priest, the executioners are to kill the crucified before the Passover festival. Since Jesus has already died, the club only hits his companions. The soul of the repentant youth accompanies Seraph Abdiel, Abbadona's friend in times of his faithfulness to God, as promised by Jesus to paradise. The author returns to the dead of the Old Testament, angels greet Moses who rose from his tomb on Mount Nebo , then a whole series of kings, e.g. B. David in conversation with Jonathan and Solomon , with whom Gabriel has a dialogue, or Hezekiah , who is first prevented from ascending by the idol Nisroch and the shadow Sennacherib and then redeemed from death by the angel in exchange with the three while he is the unbelievers sent to hell. The prophets Elisha and Ezekiel as well as the prophets Debora and Miriam follow . But not only the heroes of history are allowed to rise with a new transfigured body, also those who suffer from sacrifices and murders, such as the daughter of Jephthas , Thirza with her seven sons and Benoni (2nd song), who John reports, the forefathers and prophets have seen have: "Greatest, of those who gave birth to women, from eternity may the Father of beings bless you for eternity! Heavenly message \ I bring: Behold, the holy dust, the dead awaken \ Baptist of the Lord, the whole field moves, and is rustling \ rushes of resurrection "(v. 1546–1550).

Twelfth song

The entombment of Jesus is represented on two levels from an earthly and heavenly perspective. Joseph of Arimathäa has received permission from Pilate to be taken down from the cross and, together with Nicodemus, places the body in a burial cave. While Eva's golden hair gently flows onto the dead man's wounds and, as a happy mother, she softly lisps “How beautiful are your wounds […], still unborn savior” (v. 92-93), the other, Mary, stands veiled and can “go to the Corpse \ Do not look "(vv. 101-102). Then the followers gather helplessly and in a mood of godforsakenness in John's house. They do not hear the alternating chants of the immortals that accompany the burial and contrast the suffering of the crucified Christ with the redemption of people from eternal death and announce the resurrection of the Messiah. Jesus dying has made his followers insecure whether his prophecies of salvation from death will come true. The grieving Mary comforts Martha and encourages her to believe in Jesus' proclamations and names her brother Lazarus as an example of his superhuman powers. This theme continues after Lazarus and Martha have gone to their dying sister Mary . The Seraph Chebar accompanies her death with his string play, that "in the listener's soul \ sensations awakened as she had never felt before, \ new great thoughts, as if from the dust, to life" (v. 645-647). The song ends with two scenes, which reproduce the problems of the grieving people: Lazarus, who himself had an experience of awakening, confesses in his prayer: “Because rapture \ is to compare the sufferings of the first fled life \ with the eternal consolation, with this one Abundance of rest! ”(Vv. 706-708). Salem and Selith, the guardian angels Johannes and Mary, see, similarly in the 9th song, both the suffering, but Selith can only empathize to a limited extent: “We do not feel a lot about the poor. Like you, we cannot suffer! \ You are human and do not know it, my heavenly brother \ That it will end wonderfully! [...] Instead of this exit \ From the labyrinths [...] You will always see more of the misery in the labyrinths \ Darker Paths. "(V, 819–826)

Thirteenth chant

The resurrected David, Joseph, Ezekiel etc. sing songs of thanksgiving and praise to Jesus with harps and trumpets and are “full of the sweet expectation of the resurrection of the mediator” (v. 182), who will ascend to the throne as God without decay: “And how Then the elders will bow their faces on their thrones, and bow down their crowns, and celebrate, and give thanks, \ Thank the one who is eternal, and the Father of days! \ See, you have finished it! And will complete it even more! \ Father! First! You one who is eternal! O praise the name of your glory, praise for aeons in aeons! ”(Vv. 160-165) For the author, these superlative clusters are only a faint imitation of the“ songs of heaven ”which“ the blessed ear only hears ” “Original enthusiasm, delighted sons, delight \ firstborn! We do not know them ”(vv. 171-174). The saints float down jubilantly and gather around the cross. The risen Benoni and Maria vary the praise of the Messiah in dialogue and wait for him to rise up with him: "All" on innumerable levels, each on a different level, always on new levels of bliss, from the aeon to the aeon and do not cease to rise! ”(v. 314-316). From the blessed one looks to the devilish. The angel of death Obaddon, whose terrible sword flames pour out of it, orders Satan and Adramelech to attend their greatest defeat, the triumph of the resurrection Jesus "behind the host of the risen righteous and the host of angels" (v. 502-503). When the repentant fallen angel Abbadona hears this, he asks for pity, mocked by Adramelech as an addicted creeper. He too would like to be there, presumably in the vague hope that the “Sin Compromiser” could forgive him too. Obaddon replies that he has no orders for him, perhaps the verdict has not yet been passed on him. The conversion of a Roman soldier is faded into the songs of thanksgiving: the centurion Gnäus, guarding the nearby grave of Jesus, reflects on the truth of the Messiah's message of the resurrection and on his wavering belief in Jupiter.

For the celebration of the resurrection, all of nature is set in motion: the mountains shake. The woods bend against the grave. The “staggering” Jordan is shocked “to the source”. "Cheering". "With the sound of the walking worlds" sound "the angel's trumpets". “From the ways of the sun” comes “a weather of Jehovah [...] had already descended to the deep Tabor of the father \ glory [...] With a glowing forehead, \ Shimmering eye ', enraptured by the bliss of heaven, \ A flame of the Lord Like suns [...] Eloa shines down in the risen assembly, \ Shouted: The hour has come [...] At dawn the reconciler of sin \ will awaken his corpse! "(V. 547-565)" He comes, to lead the prison prisoner "(v. 615) The exultant, gifted circle sees" the son, after his agony \ risen! […] You float gloriously over the rock of the open grave, \ Divine, inexpressibly adorned with victories, with victories, \ Hallelujah, with victories, the triumphs of eternal death ”(v. 707–711). While the believing sons and daughters of Adam and Eve were redeemed from eternal death, the angel of death punishes the unbelievers and sends them to the valley of damnation: Satan, the soul of a follower of Jupiter, and Philo, after hearing the news of the empty grave in the sword of the converted Roman centurion.

Fourteenth chant

As a basis for his story of the empty tomb, the author combines the reports in the various Gospels and supplements them: Mary Magdalene, Mary Cleophas and other women want to anoint the body of Jesus in the early morning. So that they are not frightened by the empty grave, Gabriel and two other angels in the form of young men meet them and announce the resurrection. Confused, the women rush back into the house and fetch the disciples Peter and John. Jesus himself appears to Magdalena and tells her that he will stay with them for a while before his journey into heaven and show himself to them. When the witnesses bring the message to the disciples, they not only meet with enthusiasm but also with skepticism, v. a. in the one from the Gospel of John, chap. 20, well-known doubter Thomas, who asks the women whether they were not mistaken in the twilight and whether the Romans or priests might not have buried the dead. Peter also doubts and only believes the message when Jesus appears under the cross and extends his hand. With this message, he returns to the happy followers and Maria. They thank the Messiah for his sacrifice and worship him. But Thomas is still not convinced and asks why Jesus does not appear to everyone, why not his mother Mary. Peter replies: “We saw! [...] You don't see anything! Create for you shadows \ fear images of graves and night, terrifying doubts! \ You speak more aflame of it than we heard of the risen One, \ Whom we saw and heard, and whose body we touched! ”(V. 821-826). The author expands the role of the doubter by allowing him, after he has left the congregation, to reflect on the actions of God the Father in a rational and critical monologue in solitude: he cannot grasp with his mind why Jehovah, the one in the Old Testament several times rescued his people from danger and destroyed the enemy, z. B. when fleeing Egypt through the sea, let his son die on the cross and did not intervene in the event. That transcends his human thinking: "How do I know \ Above the grave the darker labyrinths, the longer \ melancholy paths to which death's valley leads; \ Since I don't know the murky ways of life in the dust?" […] Father! Where is your son? Where did your thunder line, where did your weather sleep when the high cross rose up? ”(Vv. 907-913). In a parallel act, the one from the Gospel of Luke, chap. 24, the traditional story of Cleophas turned on, met by a hiker who revealed himself to be Jesus in Emmaus through gestures and voice. He returns to the congregation with this news and confirms the eyewitness accounts. This time Lebbäus asks critical questions. There Jesus appears, shows his wounds, dines with them and proclaims his commission to proclaim the message of his resurrection everywhere, to teach in his name and to forgive sins: “Whoever believes and is baptized, \ he will be saved! Damn who doesn't believe! Many of the believers are supposed to accompany miracles. In my name you drive Satan out of the possessed; and speak in tongues that they did not learn ”(v. 1368-1372).

Fifteenth song

The fifteenth song marks the beginning of the mission period and the formation of Christian communities. Jesus, who has not yet ascended to heaven, shows himself to his disciples and the dead who have been raised by him appear to living people and proclaim to them as witnesses of their resurrection from the grave: how their wandering soul has connected with a new body and how they have seen the immortals to have. They tell their dream images on and so the following increases.

While Saul is receiving his missionary assignment from Jesus himself, the holy multitude of people who have already been resurrected in the 11th song selects people living from their heights, floats down and appears to them, usually dressed as pilgrims, and gives them hope by giving them the message of the Announcing the resurrection of Jesus and the redemption of people from eternal death. Some of the chosen people have been handed down from the Acts of the Apostles , others were invented by the author: Nephthoa, who was terminally ill at the age of eight, prays to God that he may see his sister again. Benoni appears to him and in the name of Jesus promises him eternal life. Dilean mourns the loss of his friend and his lover and doubts the possibility of the resurrection of the dead bodies threatened by the disintegration to dust. Despite his lack of faith, the martyr Thirza heralds the resurrection and he prays for the forgiveness of his doubts. The prophet Deborah comforts the silk carpet embroiderer Tabitha by telling her about her own awakening. Gedor and his beloved Cidli believe in Jesus' message. When Cidli dies, she is received by Rachel at the moment of death. Stephen , the future martyr, talks to Jedidoth, the youngest of the seven sons of Thirza, about the risen Jesus and the fate of his family during the Maccabees revolt against Epiphan . Barnabas Joses , who shares his money with the poor, appear to Elishas and John. The Roman woman Portia (7th chant) receives the message from Rahel and Jemina , the eldest daughter of Job. Job comforts the blind Beor with his own example and the promise of reward for grave suffering. Simeon appears to his blind brother Elkanan, Benoni to his brother Joel and his father Samma, the mother of all people, Eve, the mother of the Messiah Mary. Jonathan, Saul's son, is the pilgrim Semidas (4th song), who at the end glorifies his lover Cidli in a floating embrace.

Sixteenth chant

With motifs from the Revelation of John , chap. 20, the author tells the judgment of Jesus. He ascends the throne of the ruler of the worlds on Mount Tabor and judges the dead. A number of honorable persons are beatified: B. the noble, but misunderstood and hated by the people Kermath, an Indian king who cares for the souls of his slaves, a slandered man who has remained honest under the tyranny of a king who has stabbed himself in despair, Gelimar, a fiery one Young man who believes in eternal life, the beggar Elisama despised by the people, souls of the children, Geltor, who has done much good and pious things in his life, Zoar because of his repentance and humility, in contrast to his arrogant friend Seba, the angel of death is led into the depths, the youth Cerda, who met friends and enemies in a friendly manner. The proud Zadech, on the other hand, is condemned because he dreams of "with proud expectation [...] crowns of wages at the goal of the run \ Without humility" (v. 282–284), two military leaders as "high traitors [-] of humanity" (v . 310), Gagid and Syrmion who slain each other, Toa who revolted against the "mediator", a tyrant who "snatched the sacred rights of freedom [...] from his people with snake designs and the claws of the lion" has (vv. 434-435). Then the descent of Jesus to the gates of hell and his fight against the demons is told: the destruction of the throne and the eternal disempowerment of Satan and Adramelech. Moloch and Magog destroy each other. Gog too has to acknowledge “That God be!” (V. 689).

Seventeenth song

Three lines of action run parallel: Jesus points at Tabor, those who have been raised to eternal life appear as pilgrims and proclaim the good news to them, together with the angels they sing about the new world in which there is no more death.

Jesus appears to Thomas and shows him his wounds. Only now is he convinced of the resurrection, repented of his doubts, returned to the disciples and told them about the apparition. In the following, Jesus separates the weeping multitudes who "burdened with misery \ grumbled against caution, and, heirless in the kingdom of light, \ As they imagined, forever now, and seized by despair \ current, and whirlpools turned and storms, outraged! ”by the cheering multitudes of believing souls who now“ free stairs transfigured from the deep ”and follow the angels, \ [...] to further pilgrimage \ through the worlds, with light belts, as if \ she had them Dawn woven, belted, and carried \ golden rods with which they often pointed towards heaven, however much the pilgrims were also happy about the journey \ through the worlds ”(v. 185-191). Nephthoa (chant 15), guided by the wisdom of Christ, selects five boys. "They found the entrance to the grave in the glimmer of the lovely morning, on which \ young grass, streamed by the scent of the scent of blossoms, holy God" (v. 236-239), and others. a. Benoni “and they sang to the victor” and “As the song flowed in rivers, \ The boys danced the holy ranks to the victory song. \ See, the arch of heaven lifted up. After the terrible weather, \ yourself in the cloud! The covenant is eternal, the resurrection \ covenant is eternal! ”(V.255–261) The crowd of witnesses (11th song) expands and hears Christ sing. “Now a choir became the assembly of mortal Christians and of the perfect. All sang to the son the heavenly ones with voices \ loud shouts of joy; quiet stammering, the people: \ Praise and honor the overcomer! ”(vv. 354–357). A number of people, u. a. the doubter Sebida, the converted captain Gnaeus (13th song), Bethoron, who did not want to join Jesus as a disciple, the Bersebon, who was healed from leprosy by Jesus, meet pilgrims who prophesy their resurrection. Among these witnesses, in addition to familiar ones from the Old Testament, new people appear: Dimnot from Samos, Kerdith from Nilus, Japhet from Tenedos, Gerson from Paros, d. i. Job's friend Elihu , Jedidoth (15th song). Mary wants to comfort her brother Lazarus and tell him that she saw David's friend Husai and the psalm poets Jedithun and Heman, the father-in-law Moses Jethro, Jephtha's daughter Meggido (Canto 11). But she has to be silent, because Jesus will appear to Lazarus himself.

Eighteenth chant

The prophetess Sionite sings Adam's face (= vision) of the end-time world judgment to the narrator: in front of the judge's throne, all those who have suffered suffering in their lives accuse the perpetrators: the Christians persecuted by Christians and pagans as well as the martyrs their persecutors, those who fell in wars of conquest, the kings, etc. A "wise man who rose from the labyrinthine depths of nature \ to the throne of the son [...] even more powerfully lifted him \ deep knowledge of man's actions, not least his conscience, [...] rises to the scales of the judge of the world ”(v. 305-310). He represents the victims: “Heroes choked the human race; and priests of Christians \ Christians at the altars: alone at the altar, on the battlefield \ Only blood rushed out of the wounds! You have destroyed immortal souls \ by secret choking [...] You have carried the foaming cups of \ your poisons, which wreaths lust ', and laughter of scorn, \ among the people, even more often into the palaces, \ that of the magic drink the golden Tyrant reeling \ Death, and humanity more easily forgotten, and over the graves \ That judgment that [...] Jesus has now revealed! ”(V. 338-350). The unbelieving and unrighteous, the haughty and scornful are hard judged: “Woe to you, no pity! You could not look at the worm on earth, \ Without seeing the Creator full of grace in the worm's joy! \ You could never lift your eyes to heaven, \ Without seeing the great merciful! You never raised it to heaven! you have never cried! ”(vv. 179-183). When a convict protests against the lack of mercy and demands that his soul "sink into the wandering ruins of broken thoughts, \ Then escape into the unfathomable spaces of absurdity." (Vv. 436–437), the judge angrily extends "his own." Arm out, threw a fiery thunder, \ That the heights and the depths as far as the vaults of Hell resounded! From his head the high court square tumbled a hundred hills. The rubble trembled, steamed, crashed, like a dull roar rolling in the mountains' earthquake ”(vv. 462–466). The "blasphemer" surrenders desperately: "Let go! I hear you forever! Oh, forever, the steaming hills fall on me! [...] Cursed be the mouth that opened to implore his judgment that it should become even more terrible! ”(V. 474–478). A cherub "held a bowl full of flames down the heavens, \ That the shadows of the threatening arm overshadowed the dead in droves!" quickly turned the resounding scarf around, \ poured the flames from the sky. \ The scarf still sounded, embers still poured down on the court; Then the corrupter swore loudly through the heavens: By his name, his name is Jehovah! \ He is also called avenger, and gave it to people! \ He created religion and gave it to people! \ He only knew who God was ! Appear, too proud deceivers, \ god creators, appear, those who are exalted in heaven, \ who disfigured the amiable man, \ or gave him assistants so that gods would become them next to him! They appeared. It was judged by the divine founder of that religion ”(vv. 568-581). At the end of his vision, Adam sees Eloa calling all people to the judgment seat. "Vengeance glows in his eyes! \ His opened book hung down through the heavens" (v. 747-750). He speaks to the forefather: "Go now, you fill your ear with sweet immortality sound! \ Go, you have achieved it; but not those whom you dreamed of! \ Your name is eternal, to be called by the last mob of souls \ With the wildest curses of hell! ”(v. 765-768). The judge quickly decided the fate of the oppressors, the perpetrators of murderous wars, "the human race" through the centuries "(v. 760–761), and sentenced them to eternal death. Angels of death push them down into hell, and the gates of hell lock them forever.

Nineteenth chant

Adam's visions are continued in another sequence: Eve begs judgment on a hill for mercy for her children. The Christians, imbued with the message of the Messiah only in outward actions but not in their hearts, in ardent prayers, are accused of having shown too little humility and humanity. The fallen and repentant angel Abbadona asks for his extinction from creation, but after further offsetting his serious guilt by the angel of death and humble submission, a voice sounds from the throne: “Come, Abbadona, to your merciful!” (V. 193). Then Adam continues to see into the future, like “in the infinite distance [...] the host of the conquerors waving towards heaven [...] and I saw the earth \ becoming transformed! You angels of the holiest of holies! And you born ones! See far around me the curse-laden women of Eden! So I rose from the dust; so the earth \ Eden became of rubble. Creation died about and the stars \ shone brighter ”(vv. 244-257). After his “vision” he sees how Jesus appears to his disciples while fishing on the lake Tiberias and gives them the task to follow him and to spread his message (according to the Gospel of John, ch. 21). Then the Messiah calls his followers to say goodbye to Mount Tabor. Lazarus, Mary and Magdalena sing praising songs and pray for his help. Many of those who were converted in Canto 15, Nicodemus, Joseph, and the disciples set off, seventy appendices in all. Accompanied by the chants of the angels, they see his appearance: “All of a sudden there was delight in all eyes. As the whisper of spring rushes softly in the forest, so the speaker rang out a soft shout, \ And the crying, when the conviction of heaven \ became theirs, and their faith was transformed into sight! \ Like the catfish in the sunbeam who thirsts, and drank, still thirsty, and drinks; so they look to the Lord with a desire for heaven! ”(v. 688–694). The followers wander to the Mount of Olives. Jesus blesses them. “And behold, the cloud came down and lifted it up into heaven. The witnesses \ looked for a long time after the crucified, the risen from death! \ Long with gaze weeping joyfully, with shaken soul, \ Oh, with that feeling as it will be for us when Christ \ returns, as judge of the world, in the clouds of the Heaven! ”(V. 1052-1057). The last apparition with the speech and ascension of Jesus as well as motifs from the story of Pentecost are based on Luke's Acts of the Apostles (chapters 1 and 2).

Twentieth chant

The last chant consists of a sequence of choral hymns in the style of Old Testament psalms included in the ascension of Jesus to the throne of the Father. Crowds of “newcomers” float with the Messiah into the higher spheres, singing, accompanied by the harps and trumpets of the angels, the “Psalm of Bliss” and other songs of praise for the new creation, for Jesus' sacrifice for suffering people and their redemption from death and their union in eternal life with God. You will be welcomed by choirs of ascendants. They are souls from all peoples who were "gathered in the groves of the ear until the time of triumph" (v. 1529). "The choirs of the pious triumphal army" sing about the "miracles of the divine among the people of grace [...] With the quick choice of delight, they hastened from wonder to wonder. Like a shimmering choir flew, \ Under the silver tones of the strings, so sang to the other \ bright choir, which hardly withheld the enthusiasm for jubilation "(vv. 197–202). The subsequent songs of the angels of death deal with traditions from the Old Testament such as the rescue of Moses and his people from captivity in Egypt , the capture of Jericho (according to Joshua , chap. 6) and the rescue from exile in Babylon (based on the motifs of the prophet Ezekiel ). In all of these examples, Jehovah defeats Israel's enemies; in others, he punishes his people for breaking the law. During the further ascent in the Street of Light, choirs sing of the new covenant of people with God through Jesus' death on the cross, of the Tower of Babel and of Christian communities in Asia Minor mentioned in Revelation. Always new choirs B. the Archangel and the Prophet, with Debora and Mirjam as individual voices, sing together or alternately the hymn of praise to God the Son and God the Father, the victory over Satan: "Carried away by this enthusiasm for the shower of the future," floats "in the lighter sea of ​​heavenly heaven the host 'floats' there in a quick hurry ”(vv. 926–928). In the Psalms, well-known motifs and terms from other chants are repeatedly combined with each other in variations to form new images: The eternal world (e.g. heaven, throne of God, victory crowns, gold sheen, divine light, the glory of the kingdom of light, heirs of light, A brilliant crowd, host of the stars, rays, gently lisping harp sound, trumpet calls, blissful song, shine, triumphant palms, cedar of the Lord, immortality, perfection, glory, bliss, exclamation of rapture, salvation stream, covenant, world circle, of the new aeon Glory). The judgment on the sinful world (e.g. guilt, burden of misery, the dying cry of lament, abyss of perdition, night valley of horror, death's fearful night path, seed, harvest, speck of dust, rubble of the decaying, gray valley of putrefaction, grave night, horror before judgment, fear of childbirth, angel of judgment, scales of judgment, sword, thunderstorm) and Jesus sacrificial death (e.g. blood of sin, the altar's blood call, reconciler, call of astonishment, redemption, mercy, salvation, refreshment of the righteous, Christ 'Triumph).

Emergence

Klopstock tried, based on his Christian upbringing and the religiosity of the time in which he lived, to portray God's heavenly love for people. The content of the Messiah is shaped less by epic descriptions of events than by a religious - ecstatic point of view. Shaped by the tradition of Pietism , the work proclaims, among other things, the Christian message:

“Sing, immortal soul, the redemption of sinful men” (I, 1).

Already in his school days, the author made the plan to present a literary work about the redemption of the human race through the death of Jesus Christ . During his student days he worked on the first chants, but only decades later (1772) were all twenty completed. In 1773 he published the other chants together with revised versions of the already published parts, another revised version appeared in 1781. Since the work continued to occupy him and he regarded it as the "main task of his life", he made a decision a few years before his death to a new edition. He called it, not entirely without irony, the “last finger”. It was published as part of a complete edition of his works in 1799/1800. In the run-up to this, the printing of the first three chants had already begun in 1748, which became a great success. Chants IV and V appeared in 1751, together with chants I – III, which have since been revised. 1752/53.

meaning

Klopstock borrows from the epic meter of the hexameter, but handles it freely. He combines the high pitch of the hexameter with a syntactically complex rhetoric of inwardness and feeling in order to achieve a suggestive effect: Reading, but above all hearing the Messiah should be like an experience of awakening.

By using hexameters for the first time, Klopstock's Messiah paved the way and gave impetus to further literary history. The work was read as a religious book of edification and exerted a great influence on contemporary poets because of its formal and linguistic design. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Hölderlin use the new free rhythms that finally relaxed the strict use of rhymes according to the Opitz school and gave new space to the artistic development of the word.

The work became a model for the Messiads from the 18th century.

criticism

Contemporaries criticized the work because of its lack of illustration and it was considered a risk to write such an epic with religious content in hexameters. The triggered, sometimes violent, discussions contributed to the fact that the views of Bodmer and Breitinger prevailed against the tendencies of the school of Johann Christoph Gottsched in German literature in the context of poetology .

Companion Gotthold Ephraim Lessing praised the beauty of the poetry, which found its expression in language and the sound of words. In his opinion, the noble expression was achieved through the use of appropriate syllable proportions and pure word assembly.

Johann Heinrich Voss said: "Not only the plan of the 'Messiah' is a real monster, but also the execution in detail."

Ludwig Tieck reports:

“Today he read us something from the Messiah ; he reads very badly, and then the incessant stuff of angels and evil spirits, the incomprehensible verses, and the fact that the poem was not amusing, so much boredom that my jaws ached from dogged yawning; my eyes finally went away - he thought it was emotion! "

Years later, Friedrich Torberg made fun of Klopstock's work in verse, using lines from the epic:

“Mother nature is beautiful, the splendor of your invention. But when a professor authorizes the lake, strictly in a Horazi rhythm, then you lose the desire to swim. "

expenditure

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ For the discussion about the pardon of repentant devils: Bernd Auerochs: The emergence of the art religion. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen p. 2006, p. 148 ff.
  2. ↑ Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock at uni-due.de, accessed on February 27, 2015.
  3. ↑ a b Hamburger Klopstock edition, Works Volume IV: The Messiah ( Memento from February 27, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) at sub.uni-hamburg.de, accessed on February 27, 2015.
  4. ^ A b c Karl Schön: About Klopstock's epic Messiah literary criticism at bookrix.de, accessed on February 27, 2015.