Munigua

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Munigua, remains of the terrace sanctuary

Munigua (also Mulva ; Latin municipium Flavium Muniguense ) was a Roman municipium in the Roman province of Baetica . Since 1956 the municipality has been excavated by the German Archaeological Institute . With over 60 years of excavation history, it is one of the well-researched municipalities. In 1967 the first residential building was discovered in the east of the city by the architect and building researcher Theodor Hauschild . By 1997 a total of seven residential buildings had been identified. Munigua is the only known municipality outside of Italy that owned an elaborately designed terrace sanctuary and, like all municipalities, served as the center for the surrounding settlements. The economic basis was high-yield metal extraction and processing as well as oil and wine production.

Relief Map: Spain
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Munigua​
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Spain

Relief Map: Andalusia
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Munigua​
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Andalusia

History of settlement

Ceramic finds prove a settlement of the upper heights from the 4th century BC. In the middle of the 1st century a strong population growth can be observed, which has induced the inhabitants to leave the upper heights and to settle in lower areas. Remnants of the old residential buildings can be found in new houses, but also under public buildings such as the terrace sanctuary. Between 70 and 80 AD Munigua was granted Latin citizenship by Emperor Vespasian . The city experienced its heyday in the 2nd century. Most of the public buildings date from this period. For a long time it was assumed that the crisis of the 3rd century , which was also felt in Munigua , led to the end of the city, which is no longer seen in this way today. However, strong changes in the urban fabric can be identified. In Constantinian times the city only covered an area of ​​4.5 hectares. At the transition from the 3rd to the 4th century, the city was largely abandoned, presumably in connection with the decline of mining. The rest of the population withdrew to the hills, where traces of human presence can be found until the end of the 4th century. The city was probably never destroyed, but has gradually deteriorated since the 3rd century. In the past, it was assumed that human settlement would end after only a few generations, but more recent research has produced a more differentiated picture. Accordingly, human activities were now concentrated on the main street, the cardo maximus , which runs through the city from north to south . Furthermore, several late Roman tabernae emerged . The dominant economic factors in this late phase were handicrafts and small businesses. Imports of ceramics show that the city still had a certain economic strength at that time. In the 5th century, parts of the area originally built on with houses were used as a necropolis. Grave finds prove the continued existence of a settlement until at least the 7th century. Maybe the place was valued as a retreat due to its excellent fortification properties. After a long period without human settlement, there are references to Islamic settlements from the 8th century. Finds from this period include an Arab coin as well as typical Islamic vessels and oil lamps made of terracotta.

Research history

Excavation photo overview
Munigua. Plan as of 1997 according to Katharina E. Meyer. 1. Iron Age findings, 2nd terrace sanctuary , 3rd podium temple , 4th house 1 , 5th house 2 , 6th house 3, 7th house 4, 8th house 5, 9th house 6 , 10th thermal baths , 11th south necropolis , 12th Eastern Necropolis & Mausoleum, 13th Lime Kiln, 14th Workshop. Colors: green: private buildings, dark green: public buildings , light green: pre-Roman findings, blue: graves, light blue: water pipes, red: city wall

As early as 1565, Ambrosio de Morales , chronicler of Philip II , mentioned inscriptions from Mulva in a letter to his pupil Alfonso Chacón . A first written equation of Mulva with Munigua seems to have been established by the archaeologist Rodrigo Caro in the 17th century, in 1756 there were documented investigations of the place by the scholars Tomás de Gusseme, Sebastián Antonio de Cortes and José de Cuentas Zayas.

The first systematic campaigns to investigate the complex, generally known as 'Castillo de Mulva', were started in 1956 by the Madrid Department of the German Archaeological Institute under the direction of Wilhelm Grünhagen and focused mainly on the excavation and documentation of the public buildings on the city hill, the thermal baths on the eastern slope and from 1957 also the pre-Roman settlement of the hill. In addition, the necropolis in the east of the hill was examined up to and including 1958. From 1967 the researchers changed the question of the excavations and concentrated more on the dwellings and their relationship to the public buildings. To the east of the hill discovered Hauschild in the same year by search cuts parts of the first house ( 'Building 1' ) and parts of southern annex ( 'Home 6' ), which was excavated from 1982 to 1989. In 1974, during an investigation of the southern forum, another house was cut ('House 2'), which was completely excavated in 1988, 1993 and 1996. From 1977 to 1983 the southern necropolis on the city wall was examined in several sections. In 1984 Hauschild took over the management of the excavations, in 2002, 2003 and 2005 the area was geophysically examined.

Economic basics

Metal extraction

The Iberian Peninsula is generally very rich in ores; in addition to iron, there are large amounts of copper and, in parts, gold. The first explorers of the 18th century noticed the importance of mining. Slag residues can be found all over the city, partly as filling material for walls and paving for streets. The mining in the area is probably one of the reasons for the city's wealth; slag finds since the first inspections have long been accepted. There were several mines in the surrounding area, where exactly these were located, is currently being researched, but mining was still practiced in the region until the 1940s. The income from mining probably also provided the opportunity to build the public buildings. An economic boom can be seen in the reign of Tiberius . Possibly the city was the central cult and administrative center of the mining operations. The town's decline may be related to the decline of mining in the late 2nd century.

Wine and oil production

Other important economic factors were the production and export of wine and especially oil. Several plants found in the city testify to the importance of oil production.

The necropolis and the tombs

The necropolis has been systematically explored since 1957/58. In 1973, K. Raddatz discovered five rich cremations. The graves were surrounded by a wall, which speaks for a closed, enclosed grave area. Since the area is completely flat, one can assume a contiguous system.

In the case of cremation burials, a general distinction can be made between two types: the corpse burn and the additions remain directly at the place of the cremation, which is referred to as a bustum , or they are subsequently buried in a separate location. The dead person is burned in a so-called Ustrina and the corpse is then recovered. This is the most common form of burial in the southern necropolis. Since the additions show no or hardly any traces of fire, it can be assumed that they were only added after they were burned.

At the burial of corpses and grave goods, four different systems can be identified: 1. Without protection in the grave pit 2. In an urn or a container. 3. In a bustum, corpse burn and additions remain at the place of the cremation. This species was used until the 3rd century when it became very rare in other places. 4. In the garbage pit of an Ustrina. Here, remains of the pyre and remains of gifts without a corpse are found in the pit.

Many small ceramic fragments can still be found in the earth, but they are not part of the grave goods, but ended up with the earth in the burial ground.

The examination of the skeletons according to the sex of the buried person has not yet been fully completed, so the sexes are only determined on the basis of the additions. Gifts of different genders can be divided as follows:

  • Women: jewelry and toilet utensils (tweezers, mirrors, perfume bottles)
  • Men: weapons, tools and traditional costumes, the belt buckles of these are often particularly well preserved.
  • Children: toys, amulets, small finger rings or arm rings.

Although it was part of the cult of the dead at that time, coins are rather rare additions, they are completely absent in the urn graves. The coins found are all aces . Pearls are often interpreted as a child's gift, but can generally often be found in female burials. According to these burial criteria, there is only one male grave in the entire grave field. The urn burials cannot be assigned to any gender due to the destruction of the tissue. If there is little corpse burn or noticeably small urns, one can assume children's graves. According to these criteria, 26 women, 5 children / adolescents and a man's grave are found on the basis of the additions. The remainder could not be determined. The small number of male graves is surprising and suggests that the majority of the undetermined corpses are male. Although the cemeteries and grave fields of that time mostly contain child and woman graves due to the high child and maternal mortality, the clear difference is still surprising.

Islamic settlement and tombs

During the 1998 excavation campaign, Felix Teichner provided evidence of an Islamic settlement phase. The pottery found in this context from several layers of the city hill could be the 8th / 9th. to be assigned to the 12th century. However, it could not be clearly clarified whether they document a renewed continuous repopulation of the place or merely reflect short stays for strategic reasons.

Several graves were found from that time, which were laid out according to clearly Islamic burial rites. After this, the deceased was buried lying on the outstretched right side of the body. The head is tucked back slightly and faces south, the arms are stretched out and lying to the side. This type of burial does not appear on the entire Iberian Peninsula until the advent of Islam and is a good characteristic, as Islam has clear rules for burial. However, the graves found do not fully meet these requirements. There are grave goods, albeit very small ones. The graves were dated to a rough period between the end of the 7th and 9th centuries. How the Islamic faith found its way into Munigua, as well as the intention of the settlement, could not be clarified. On the one hand, it is possible for Arab or Serbian groups to settle in the country since 711. On the other hand, they could be members of the local population who have already converted. Both are conceivable, since with the campaigns of the years 711 to 714 several times larger Arab and Serbian groups came into the country and Islamization in the newly conquered areas usually started immediately after the successful conquest of an area. Especially in the case of the burial of the dead, however, this prevailed rather slowly, which can speak as an indication of the mixed form found while partially maintaining local traditions.

Public buildings

Reconstruction of Munigua seen from the east. The terrace sanctuary can be seen behind the public buildings and the residential buildings in the foreground.

A characteristic feature of Roman politics was the urbanization of newly conquered areas. It enabled easier administration, a connection to the existing infrastructure and promoted adaptation to the Roman way of life. City life had a high priority in society and, according to Cicero, was the only civilized form of human coexistence. What was important here was the adoption of public building types that served administrative functions and impressively highlighted the Roman domination. Munigua is a particularly good example of the urban development of the Hispania province . Compared to private houses and the population that can be estimated from them, public buildings occupy a large area. This has suggested that Munigua was a regional center, which is supported by the large burial grounds and necropolises. Further evidence of this can be found in the surrounding area, where a large number of farms, huts and hamlets could be discovered, for which Munigua was probably the reference point. Since no other cities are known in the area, the territory administered from Munigua possibly extended far into the Sierra Morena rising to the north.

Terrace Sanctuary

The terrace sanctuary in the west was uncovered during the first excavation in the spring of 1957. In its entirety, it has a width of 35.2 meters and a length of 54.53 meters. The entire system is constructed symmetrically and consists of three platforms one above the other. On the western rear, it has a stepped structure, here the walls have been particularly well preserved and rise almost nine meters high. The cella is almost square and extends to the side of the courtyard. The purpose of a ring sunk into the ground in the middle of the courtyard and two rectangular basins has not yet been clarified. Possibly they served as a holder for boxes in which flowers or other plants were displayed. Although it was under rubble, the walls, some 6 meters high, have been visible since ancient times. They show only minor damage. The type of construction of the sanctuary matches the terrace sanctuaries that were common in Latium during Republican times , something that earlier observers escaped before the systematic investigations began. It thus forms a clear reference to the Italian motherland, has an identity-forming effect and draws on motifs from old central Italian building complexes. By evaluating coin finds and ceramics, the sanctuary could be dated to the early Flavian period around 70 AD after some discussions . Around this time the settlement was raised to the rank of municipium . There are references to the terrace sanctuaries in Praeneste and Tibur . Fortune and Hercules were probably worshiped as deities, even if there is no clear evidence of this. Under the temple there are remains of older residential buildings, some of which were inhabited from the beginning of the 1st century until shortly before the sanctuary was built. They did not collapse due to a natural disaster, but were leveled as planned for the construction of the sanctuary. By the 7th century at the latest, it was stripped of its cultic function and profaned .

Podium stamp

The podium temple is located between the forum and the terrace sanctuary and was partly built over older wall remains. The construction of the temple probably began shortly after the construction of the terrace sanctuary, according to the ceramic finds in the 2nd century. The remains of four pillars were found in front of the temple. Holes in the masonry, so-called bracket holes, suggest a wall cladding with marble slabs.

Forum

The forum is located in the lower area of ​​the city hill. Due to the sloping terrain, a large retaining wall had to be built to the east and the intended area had to be terraced with earth. The floor plan can no longer be clearly determined, as the demolition of retaining walls, especially on the east side, pushed the walls from the original direction into the surrounding earth and the distances that can be measured today therefore do not correspond to the ancient ones. However, a clear center can be seen on which a portico encloses a small square. The wall was originally almost 5 meters high and about 1.20 meters thick. Two construction phases can be identified. The oldest includes the portico area, while the younger is built on the south side. The older one consists of rubble stones, some of which were well mortared, in other places they were simply set dry. The two walls were connected by a strong yellow corner brick pillar. A thermal system from an older time has been found below the forum. Several coins as well as ceramics were found, the most recent finds suggesting a date in the Flavian period. The forum was probably richly decorated with statues and dedications, as evidenced by large numbers of preserved base fragments. In the northern area there is an adjoining room with a noticeably heavy ashlar substructure, which was interpreted as the installation site for a horse monument to the god Dis Pater . According to two identical inscriptions, templum, forum, porticus, exedra, tabularium were donated by L. (?) Valerius Firmus, Munigua's two-time duumvirn . The forum as well as an adjoining house was probably destroyed by an earthquake in the late 3rd century. That this happened very suddenly can be proven by a body found under the collapsed rubble.

Two-story hall

The two-story hall was excavated in several campaigns between 1960 and 1966. It stands directly on the slope and opens up towards a small undeveloped space, which is also connected to the western side of the forum. This space presumably already existed in front of the hall and the forum, which, however, could not be 100% clarified, as was the question of whether the hall was an extension of an initially one-story hall. The dating varies between the early Imperial and Hadrian times . Subsequent investigations were able to prove the collapse of the hall at the end of the 3rd century using ceramics. The hall was then used again by adding several smaller rooms. The floor plan has a length of 14.20 m with a width of 3.22 m on the south and 3.45 m on the north side. The rear wall as well as the northern side wall and some pillars are founded directly on the rock. The remnants of the floor are also directly above the worked rock bed. This is made up of a mixture of dark stone chippings and lime mortar. In the southern area there were three pillars that had square depressions in the natural rock and served as embedding of portrait statues of various emperors.

Aedicula

The aedicule was probably dedicated to the god Mercury . The dating was subject to several changes in the course of the various excavations and has not yet been fully clarified. It was first dated to the first half of the 2nd century, later to the middle to late 1st century or even earlier. The architectural elements consist of sandstone and sandstone conglomerate, as do the column bases found on the west side of the forum. One of the pillars of the aedicula is very similar to the one found on the forum, which suggests that they should be built together.

Thermal baths

The existing thermal baths in the northeast of Munigua are relatively small. Overall, the system has a height of around four meters. The state of preservation varies greatly, sometimes the building is in extremely good condition, sometimes almost completely demolished. The thermal baths were built from red brick material, which was reinforced with pillars at the corners with the help of mortar. Several remains of wall paintings and some sculptures have been found. A larger robe statue discovered in 1960 could not be clearly assigned to the thermal baths and may come from the forum. In addition to a marble erotic sarcophagus, three plinths of extremely high quality are found as luxurious furnishings . On them are inscription fields decorated with pearl rods and tendrils. Below the thermal baths, there were remains of businesses that were believed to have been used for iron extraction and were used until the middle of the 1st century. In the course of the 2nd and 3rd centuries they underwent several alterations and were probably used as living space from the 4th century onwards. Around 100 AD a room belonging to the thermal baths was built, which is interpreted as a nymphaeum . Renovation work can be seen here around the middle of the 2nd century, which is why the room could then have fulfilled a different function.

The houses

House 1 in the Roman Munizipium Munigua based on plans by Katharina E. Meyer. Red: preserved masonry - blue: wall preserved only in the foundation - green: assumed course of the wall

House 1

The foundation of the building, which was discovered in 1967, consists of Opus caementicium , on which a brick wall was erected, whereby a chronological sequence of the various construction phases can be read from the various construction techniques in the manner of Opus testaceum and from the 1st century AD with Opus mixtum .

Already in the first construction phase, which Katharina Meyer dates to the first century AD, an oil press and several smelting furnaces can be proven, even if these presumably existed at different times. The second construction phase, dated from the end of the 1st to the 2nd century, falls into the main development phase of Munigua and clearly shows that the building can be interpreted as a private residential building with 22 rooms. The rooms are grouped around the central, elongated complex of vestibule , peristyle and triclinium , but the entrance tract is slightly shifted in the longitudinal axis. The foremost room of this area facing the (possibly main) street was at ground level and could not be locked, so it probably served as the open vestibule of the house.

House 2

Schematic representation of the second construction phase (B2) of house 2 in the Roman Munizipium Munigua according to plans by Felix Teichner
Excavation photo of house 2

The house in the north of the settlement is directly adjacent to the forum and can be reached from there via a narrow ramp (1). Directly adjoining this is a room (2) which, due to its pillars, is referred to as the basement of an upper floor above. The north-western room (3) is interpreted as a workshop with an oil press, the room directly to the south as a shop (4) with access to the street. According to Felix Teichner, the central room on the floor served as a business and storage room. Rooms, which are apparently separated from this area of ​​the house, presumably served as living rooms (7, 8, 10) and business premises, the possible staircase ramp (6) led to the upper floor.

Even in front of the house, the place was used in at least two older settlement phases, first possibly for a press, then for iron production with several proven racing furnaces . The first phase of construction of the house will start in the middle of the 1st century at the earliest, the second main phase around 100–150 years later. This building phase probably collapsed in the second half of the 3rd century due to an earthquake and was at least partially restored in a third building phase at the beginning of the 4th century. A final phase of the building from the 5th to the 7th century ended the history of the building, even if there was evidence of continuous settlement in the vicinity up to the time of the Reconquista .

House 6

House 6 in the Roman Munizipium Munigua based on plans by Katharina E. Meyer. Red: preserved masonry - blue: wall preserved only in the foundation - green: assumed course of the wall

In terms of construction, the outbuilding of House 1 is very similar to this and, at least in the first phase, difficult to separate from it. From phase 2 at the latest, however, it is clear that this is a residential building that is separate from house 1 and that like this one had 22 rooms that were also grouped similarly.

House 6 was probably built shortly after House 1, which can be seen from the construction of the partition wall.

literature

  • Sven Ahrens: Building decor by Munigua. In: Madrid Communications . Volume 45, 2004, pp. 371-448.
  • Christoph Eger, Sabine Panzram: Michael Kulikowski and the late Roman city in Spain. Critical comments on the Munigua case study. In: Ethnographic-Archaeological Journal . Volume 47, 2, 2006, pp. 267–280 (online)
  • Christof Eger: Early Islamic burials in Munigua (Prov. Seville / E). In: Archaeological correspondence sheet . Volume 46, Issue 2, 2016, pp. 255–269 (online)
  • Markus Griepentrog: Mining in the Munigua area. New results on the city's economic base. In: Provincial Roman Research. Festschrift for Günter Ulbert on his 65th birthday. Leidorf, Espelkamp 1995, pp. 237-252.
  • Wilhelm Grünhagen : The excavations of the terrace sanctuary of Munigua. In: New German excavations in the Mediterranean region and in the Middle East. Mann, Berlin 1959, pp. 329-343.
  • Norbert Hanel : Roman oil and wine production on the Iberian Peninsula using the example of Munigua and Milreu. In Madrid communications. Volume 30, 1989, pp. 205-238 (online)
  • Theodor Hauschild : Munigua. The two-storey hall and the aedicula in the forum area. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 9, 1968, pp. 263-288.
  • Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. Investigations in the urban area east of the forum. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 10, 1969, pp. 185-195.
  • Theodor Hauschild: Comments on the thermal baths and nymphaeum of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 18, 1977, pp. 285-286.
  • Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. Excavations on the Forum's retaining wall, 1985. In: Madrider Mitteilungen. Volume 27, 1986, pp. 325-343.
  • Katharina E. Meyer, Carlos Basas, Felix Teichner : Mulva IV. Houses 1 and 6; la cerámica de la casa n.6; the house 2 (= Madrid contributions. Volume 27). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2001.
  • Thomas G. Schattner : Thoughts on the situation and location of the terrace sanctuary of Munigua (Prov. Seville). In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner , Klaus Rheidt (Ed.): Power of architecture - architecture of power. Building research colloquium in Berlin from October 30th to November 2nd, 2002 organized by the DAI's Architecture Department. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2004, pp. 241–249.
  • Thomas G. Schattner: The rediscovery of Munigua. Outline of the research history. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 46, 2005, pp. 267-288.
  • Thomas G. Schattner: Munigua: city of sanctuaries. In: Archeology in Germany . Issue 5, 2006, pp. 58-61.
  • Thomas G. Schattner: Where in Munigua did the Senate meet? In: Madrid Communications. Volume 54, 2013, pp. 348-370.
  • Felix Teichner: Traces of Islamic Settlement on the Castillo de Mulva (Villanueva del Río y Minas, prov. Seville)? In: Madrid Communications. Volume 39, 1998, pp. 336-355 (online)
  • Mercedes Vegas: Mulva II. The southern necropolis of Munigua. Excavation campaigns from 1977 to 1988 (= Madrid contributions. Volume 15). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1988.

Web links

Commons : Munigua  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Ceremony in the Archaeological Museum in Seville on May 31, 2016 for the 60th anniversary of DAI research in the Munizipium Flavium Muniguense (Munigua). ( Memento of the original from July 30, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Message from the German Embassy in Spain. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.spanien.diplo.de
  2. ^ Wilhelm Grünhagen : The excavations of the terrace sanctuary of Munigua. In: New German excavations in the Mediterranean region and in the Middle East. Mann, Berlin 1959, p. 354.
  3. ^ Wilhelm Grünhagen: The excavations of the terrace sanctuary of Munigua. In: New German excavations in the Mediterranean region and in the Middle East. Mann, Berlin 1959, p. 340.
  4. ^ Felix Teichner : Traces of Islamic settlement on the Castillo de Mulva (Villanueva del Río y Minas, prov. Seville)? In: Madrid Communications. Volume 39, 1998, p. 352.
  5. ^ Sven Ahrens: Building decor of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications . Volume 45, 2004, p. 413.
  6. ↑ Christoph Eger: Early Islamic burials in Munigua (Prov. Sevilla / E). In: Archaeological correspondence sheet . Volume 46, Issue 2, 2016, pp. 255–269.
  7. ^ Felix Teichner: Traces of Islamic settlement on the Castillo de Mulva (Villanueva del Río y Minas, prov. Seville)? In: Madrid Communications. Volume 39, 1998, p. 346.
  8. ^ Felix Teichner: Traces of Islamic settlement on the Castillo de Mulva (Villanueva del Río y Minas, prov. Seville)? In: Madrid Communications. Volume 39, 1998, pp. 348-349.
  9. ↑ Thomas G. Schattner : The rediscovery of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 46, 2005, pp. 267-288.
  10. ↑ Klaus Raddaz: Mulva I. The excavations in the necropolis in the years 1957 and 1958 (= Madrid posts. Volume 2). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1973, p. 1.
  11. ↑ Katharina E. Meyer, Carlos Basas, Felix Teichner: Mulva IV. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2001, p. 7.
  12. ↑ Katharina E. Meyer, Carlos Basas, Felix Teichner: Mulva IV. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2001, p. 211.
  13. ↑ Thomas G. Schattner: The rediscovery of Munigua. Outline of the research history. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 46, 2005, pp. 267-288.
  14. ↑ Burkart Ullrich, Cornelius Meyer: The investigation of Roman town planning with geophysical prospecting methods using the example of Pompeii, Italy and Munigua, Spain. In: Ground-penetrating radar and other non-destructive methods of research into archaeological monuments. Findling, Neuenhagen 2005, pp. 146–152; Cornelius Meyer, Burkart Ullrich, Christophe DM Barlieb: Archaeological Questions and Geophysical Solutions: Ground-Penetrating Radar and Induced Polarization Investigations in Munigua, Spain. In: Archaeological Prospection. Volume 14, 2007, pp. 202–212 (online)
  15. ↑ Christoph Eger, Sabine Panzram: Michael Kulikowski and the late Roman city in Spain. Critical comments on the Munigua case study. In: Ethnographic-Archaeological Journal . Volume 47,2, 2006, p. 270.
  16. ↑ Markus Griepentrog: Mining in the area around Munigua. New results on the city's economic base. In: Provincial Roman Research. Festschrift for Günter Ulbert on his 65th birthday. Leidorf, Espelkamp 1995, pp. 237-252.
  17. ^ Norbert Hanel : Roman oil and wine production on the Iberian Peninsula using the example of Munigua and Milreu. In Madrid communications. Volume 30, 1989, pp. 205-238.
  18. ^ Mercedes Vegas: Mulva II. The southern necropolis of Munigua. Excavation campaigns from 1977 to 1988 (= Madrid contributions. Volume 15). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1988, p. 1.
  19. ^ Mercedes Vegas: Mulva II. The southern necropolis of Munigua. Excavation campaigns from 1977 to 1988 (= Madrid contributions. Volume 15). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1988, pp. 17-18.
  20. ^ Mercedes Vegas: Mulva II. The southern necropolis of Munigua. Excavation campaigns from 1977 to 1988 (= Madrid contributions. Volume 15). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1988, pp. 24-47.
  21. ^ Mercedes Vegas: Mulva II. The southern necropolis of Munigua. Excavation campaigns from 1977 to 1988 (= Madrid contributions. Volume 15). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1988, p. 24.
  22. ^ Mercedes Vegas: Mulva II. The southern necropolis of Munigua. Excavation campaigns from 1977 to 1988 (= Madrid contributions. Volume 15). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1988, pp. 68-69.
  23. ↑ Christoph Eger: Early Islamic burials in Munigua (Prov. Sevilla / E). In: Archaeological correspondence sheet . Volume 46, Issue 2, 2016, pp. 255–269.
  24. ^ Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. Investigations in the urban area east of the forum. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 10, 1969, p. 186.
  25. ^ Thomas G. Schattner: On the metal extraction of Munigua, a preliminary report. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 45, 2004, p. 352.
  26. ↑ Thomas G. Schattner: Munigua: City of Sanctuaries. In: Archeology in Germany . Volume 5, 2006, p. 60.
  27. ^ Wilhelm Grünhagen: The excavations of the terrace sanctuary of Munigua. In: New German excavations in the Mediterranean region and in the Middle East. Mann, Berlin 1959, p. 329.
  28. ^ Wilhelm Grünhagen: The excavations of the terrace sanctuary of Munigua. In: New German excavations in the Mediterranean region and in the Middle East. Mann, Berlin 1959, p. 337.
  29. ↑ Thomas G. Schattner: Thoughts on the situation and location of the terrace sanctuary of Munigua (Prov. Seville). In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner , Klaus Rheidt (Ed.): Power of architecture - architecture of power. Building research colloquium in Berlin from October 30th to November 2nd, 2002 organized by the DAI's Architecture Department. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2004, pp. 247–249.
  30. ^ Sven Ahrens: Building decor of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 45, 2004, p. 413.
  31. ^ Sven Ahrens: Building decor of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 45, 2004, p. 393.
  32. ^ Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. Excavations on the Forum's retaining wall, 1985. In: Madrider Mitteilungen. Volume 27, 1986, p. 327.
  33. ^ Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. Investigations in the urban area east of the forum. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 10, 1969, p. 187.
  34. ↑ Corpus de Inscripciones latinas de Andalucía (CILA) 2.4, 1076: [L (ucius) V] alerius [Q] uir (ina) Firmu [s] / [IIvir bis templu] m forum / [porticus exed] ra [m] / [tab] ula [rium s (ua) p (ecunia)] / d [edic] av [it]. CILA 2.4, 1077: [L (ucius) V] alerius [Q] uir (ina) Firmu [s] / [IIvir bis templu] m forum / [porticus exed] ra [m] / [tab] ula [rium s ( ua) p (ecunia)] / d [edic] av [it].
  35. ^ Sven Ahrens: Building decor of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 45, 2004, p. 374.
  36. ^ Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. The two-storey hall and the aedicula in the forum area. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 9, 1968, p. 266.
  37. ^ Sven Ahrens: Building decor of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 45, 2004, p. 383.
  38. ^ Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. The two-storey hall and the aedicula in the forum area. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 9, 1968, pp. 370-374.
  39. ^ Theodor Hauschild: Munigua. Investigations in the urban area east of the forum. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 10, 1969, p. 196.
  40. ^ Theodor Hauschild: Comments on the thermal baths and nymphaeum of Munigua. In: Madrid Communications. Volume 18, 1977, S, pp. 284-286.
  41. ^ Katharina E. Meyer: The houses 1 and 6. In: Katharina E. Meyer, Carlos Basas, Felix Teichner: Mulva IV. (= Madrid contributions. Volume 27). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2001, pp. 9–140.
  42. ^ Felix Teichner: Das Haus 2. In: Katharina E. Meyer, Carlos Basas, Felix Teichner: Mulva IV (= Madrid contributions. Volume 27). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2001, pp. 211-272. ( online )
  43. ^ Katharina E. Meyer: The houses 1 and 6. In: Katharina E. Meyer, Carlos Basas, Felix Teichner: Mulva IV. (= Madrid contributions. Volume 27). Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2001, pp. 9–140.

Coordinates: 37 ° 42 ′ 47.9 "  N , 5 ° 44 ′ 14.2"  W.