Musaeum Tradescantianum

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John Tradescant the Elder (Portrait attributed to Cornelis de Neve, 17th century)

The Musaeum Tradescantianum was the first public museum in England in the 17th century. It was located in South Lambeth, Surrey, the property at that time is now part of the London boroughs of Stockwell and Vauxhall . His collection consisted of curiosities exhibited by John Tradescant the Elder and his son, John Tradescant the Younger in a building known as The Ark , and a botanical collection in the garden of the property.

The Musaeum Tradescantianum or Tradescants' Ark was known not only to the people of London, but to large parts of the educated class of England. It was mentioned repeatedly in poetry and attracted scholars from all over Europe. His plant list from 1634 is one of the rarest botanical publications and the catalog from 1656 was the first English-language publication about a museum. Some of the few collection items still preserved today have great historical value. After the death of the Tradescants, the collection of the Musaeum Tradescantianum formed the basis for the Ashmolean Museum, which opened in 1683 .

Location and time of existence

The Musaeum Tradescantianum exhibited the plants and objects collected between around 1610 and 1662 by the two John Tradescant. Popularly known as Tradescant's Ark , the building with the collection, where the Tradescant family themselves lived from 1628, was in South Lambeth, part of Surrey. Today this is the area of ​​the London boroughs of Stockwell and Vauxhall in the Borough of Lambeth enclosed by South Lambeth Road and Tradescant Road . The building included a garden of about 4,000 square meters and an orchard of another 8,000 or more square meters. The plants grown in the garden came from numerous countries and were part of the Musaeum's collection . The date on which the collection became publicly available has not survived; However, there is a printed list of the exhibited plants from 1634. The Musaeum was no longer open to the public from 1661 and in 1683 the collection items were moved to the newly built Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.

Former cabinets of curiosities

John Tradescant the Elder (engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar , 17th century)

Cabinets of curiosities have their origins in antiquity. Writers such as Homer , Cicero, and others described private treasuries that served various purposes. Typical motives were the creation of reserves for times of need or the accumulation of valuables as a status symbol. In the Middle Ages, important collections were those of the Catholic Church, which were often housed in monasteries or inaccessible rooms in churches and could contain valuable sacred objects , manuscripts or relics . The secret chambers of secular rulers emerged from them. In the 13th and 14th centuries, such collections, brought together in a confined space, were called “studios” in France and Italy. Terms such as "Kunstkammer", "Wunderkammer" and "Schatzkammer" were later used in German-speaking countries.

Two examples of princely European Chambers of Wonder from the 16th century were the Kunstkammer of Albrecht V of Bavaria in Munich and the Kunstkammer of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague . At that time, the establishment of curiosity cabinets was already widespread in the royal houses of continental Europe, and collections of scholars and wealthy merchants were soon added, also encouraged by the great expeditions, conquests and trade between the continents. England did not follow these examples for a long time, but Francis Bacon described four aids for the study of nature in his play Gesta Grayorum, or, the History of the High and Mighty Prince, Prince Henry of Purpoole from 1594: a library, a botanical and a zoological one Garden, a large cabinet with man-made works of art and technology, and a well-equipped workshop or laboratory.

The first closed cabinet of curiosities in England was established by Walter Cope in what is now Holland House at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries . During his travels to India, Cope used the opportunity to build up his collection of curiosities, which, like the Musaeum Tradescantianum later, comprised objects from nature and artefacts from foreign countries. Walter Cope was a close friend of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury , a future employer of Tradescants the Elder. The fact that Cope and Tradescant were known to each other is evidenced by an invoice for the procurement of plants worth 38 pounds, which Tradescant brought from Leiden in 1611 for Cope.

The collections offered their owners or the people who put them together the opportunity for social advancement, including social interaction with ruling princes or admission to the nobility. The researchers involved in the maintenance and expansion of royal collections were able to reach positions at court to which they otherwise had no access without a noble background or academic training. Christian IV of Denmark and Norway visited the private cabinet of curiosities in the Walter Copes house . John Tradescant also used the opportunity to overcome the barriers to his membership in civil society with his collecting activity.

The early cabinets of curiosities had in common that they expressed the wealth of the owners, but also their striving for knowledge and that they were only accessible to the princes and their closest social circle. The private character was also expressed in the fact that these collections were mostly housed in rooms with no apparent order, piled up to the ceiling and using even the smallest available space. The infrequent visitors always needed the collector to be accompanied in order to obtain an expert description of the objects or even to identify them.

As a publicly accessible collection, the Musaeum Tradescantianum differed considerably from the private cabinets of curiosities and natural objects . The visitors no longer only included the small circle of interested aristocrats, scientists or other members of the upper class, but also ordinary people who were given access for an entrance fee. With the abandonment of the private and personal instruction by the owner of the collection, there was also the need to organize the exhibited objects in a way that visitors could understand. To explain the collection items, the Tradescants had a book printed in which the exotic plants on display in the garden were described. The Musaeum Tradescantianum was also the first collection of rarities to be called a "museum". This term had previously only been used for collections of works of art, for the first time for the Uffizi in Florence.

Structure and scope of the collection

John Tradescant the Younger (attributed to Thomas De Critz, 1652)
Dodo, illustration from Ornithologiae libri tres by Francis Willughby , 1678

In their collection, the Tradescants differentiated between natural objects (“Naturalia”) and man-made objects (“Artificialia”). The category of naturalia was further divided into birds, quadrupeds, fish, shellfish, insects, minerals, and foreign fruits. The artifacts affiliated Tradescant in tools, household items, clothing, weapons, rare works of art, coins and medals, cameos and intaglios , medical instruments, Egyptian and Roman antiquities, oriental calligraphy , feather jewelry and objects from foreign nations. The objects in the collection were grouped less according to their origin than according to their function. A listing in the collection's catalog published in 1656 contained, for example, B. "12 bows, 20 arrows, 12 quivers, 60 darts from India, China, Canada, Virginia, Guinea, Turkey and Persia". The property with its numerous rare and exotic plants was part of the museum and the museum catalog from 1656 listed numerous plants in the garden.

While the tradescants tried, on the one hand, to present their objects in an orderly manner and to develop a system for them, on the other hand they were careful to procure the greatest rarities for their collection. Not only newly discovered bird species or bird species never before shown in Europe, such as the dodo , a toucan and birds of paradise, found their way into the Musaeum Tradescantianum . In an appeal to commercial travelers from 1625, the older Tradescant specifically advertised the gigantic, the largest available head of an elephant or a manatee, the largest shellfish, large flying fish and everything else "strange".

As early as 1634 the collection had grown to a large size, and the traveling salesman Peter Mundy needed a whole day to visit it. In his description he named birds, four-legged animals, fish, snakes, worms ("real, although dead and dried up"), precious stones, weapons, coins, shells and feathers (at this point not as natural phenomena, but as part of clothing and useful objects) from different countries, plus various carvings, such as a cherry pit with 88 carved portraits of earlier emperors and paintings. Mundy was "almost convinced" that there were more curiosities gathered here in one place than a man would see in a lifetime while traveling.

Around 1650 the Musaeum Tradescantianum contained objects from all over the known world, whereby the continents were taken into account to different degrees. Most of the items in the collection came from America and Asia, continents to which England maintained an intensive trade and in which there were English branches. Because of the not so well developed trade relations, Africa was poorly represented. The rarities of African origin came mainly from West Africa, between the rivers Senegal and Congo. Very few pieces came from East Africa and the Pacific.

Many of the objects exhibited in the Musaeum Tradescantianum reflect the superstitions of the time. In the holdings of the Ashmolean Museum, a 1756 manuscript listed a deformed human femur that was believed to have belonged to John Tradescant. This "thighbone of a giant" has not yet been mentioned in Tradescant's 1656 catalog. The naturalia offered other objects that are dubious from today's perspective, more in the case of animals than in the case of plants. The catalog lists “various eggs”, most of which are assigned to birds, but also one “that is said to have come from a dragon” and “Easter eggs of the Patriarchs of Jerusalem”. There are also two feathers "from the tail of the phoenix " and the claws of the " Roch bird that can hold an elephant."

The Musaeum Tradescantianum became known for the uniqueness of many of its collectibles among 17th-century scholars, who used the museum's holdings for their research. In 1676 the fifth edition of the Compleat Angler by Izaak Walton appeared , in which he also described fish and other animals from the Musaeum Tradescantianum . John Ray visited the museum in order to prepare the ornithological work Ornithologiae libri tres by Francis Willughby , published posthumously in 1678, to compare the information in the book with the dodo and other birds only available in the Musaeum Tradescantianum .

Almost a century later, Kaspar Friedrich Jencquel, a member of a Hamburg senatorial family, followed the classification of the objects in the collection as carried out by the Tradescants in his book Museographia. Instructions for the correct term and useful creation of the Museorum in detail.

Significant exhibits

Powhatan's cloak , now in the Ashmolean Museum , Oxford

In July 1638, the 22-year-old lawyer and later Nuremberg councilor Georg Christoph Stirn visited London and the Musaeum Tradescantianum . His diary-like notes are preserved as a manuscript in the Bodleian Library . Forehead provides an extensive description of the collection, with the listing of numerous exhibits. The collection items listed by forehead included two ribs of a whale in the garden, a small boat made of tree bark of Indian origin, and many kinds of exotic plants. The natural section included a salamander, a chameleon, a pelican, a flying fox, colorful birds from India, fossils, a monkey's head, mussels and snails, the hand of a mummy, a toad fish, a large magnetic stone and much more. The artifacts listed by forehead included, among other things, wax objects, precious stones, coins, a picture made of feathers, a piece of the Holy Cross , various optical gadgets, old book illuminations, Turkish and other foreign shoes and boots, Indian arrows, a Jewish circumcision tool, items of clothing and pipes .

Naturalia

Outstanding objects in the field of naturalia were in John Tradescant's catalog of 1656 a stuffed dodo , possibly the animal presented alive in London in 1638, a toucan "with a four-inch long and almost two-inch wide beak like a Turkish sword", and several of those at the time coveted birds of paradise, "some with and some without legs". In the 17th century, with the arrival of damaged hides in Europe, it was a common belief that some birds of paradise had no legs. The horn of a unicorn was also presented; it was actually the tusk of the narwhal, which was little known at the time .

Virginia Algonquin

Among the Artificialia , several Native American garments from Virginia are mentioned, including pieces of bearskin, a feather-adorned cloak and a cloak ( Pohatan, King of Virginia's habit all embroidered with shells, or Roanoke ) attributed to Chief Wahunsonacock (Powhatan), the father of Pocahontas . . This leather cloak measures approximately 2.35 by 1.60 meters and consists of four tanned deer hides sewn together. It is decorated with 37 figures and ornaments made of sewn-on sea snails, which probably belong to a species of the genus Marginella (Gastropoda: Marginellidae ) that cannot be specified , and was called Roanoke by the Virginia Algonquians . Only a few of these objects have survived today, including the Powhatan's cloak , which is now on display in the Ashmolean Museum, as a particularly valuable testimony to Native American culture. The little birch bark boat mentioned by Stirn in 1638 was not mentioned in the 1656 catalog, it is now in the Pitt Rivers Museum .

Greenland

Another canoe, however, was listed as "An.o -76". From this, some authors conclude a connection with the capture of an Inuit that Martin Frobisher brought to England from Baffin Island in 1576. The catalog names other Inuit objects such as boots, shoes and a match coat from Greenland of the Intrails of Fishes . The term “match coat” is the Anglicization of the word machicote or majigoode from an Algonquin language and actually describes a dress. Tradescant uses the term here for an Inuit anorak made from the innards of fish.

Russia

The "Jacket of the Duke of Tsarist Russia" from the catalog was a richly decorated jacket that Tradescant the Elder could have brought back from his trip to Arkhangelsk in 1618 with other Russian clothing. It then possibly came from Prince Andreas Wassiljewitsch Khilkov, a member of the Rurikids and at that time the only "duke" in Arkhangelsk. However, the travel report left by Tradescant only shows that he caught birds and prepared their hides during the trip. All other objects from Russia and Northern Europe can also have been purchased at a later date or added to the collection as gifts.

The catalog dispensed with a detailed description of numerous groups of objects. Only one painting from the collection, a portrait by Thomas Parr , is mentioned in the catalog; the others were listed as “portraits of various personalities” without further details.

Procurement of the objects

John Tradescant the Younger (engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar, 17th century)

The objects in the early ecclesiastical and royal chambers of curiosities were mostly gifts and favors for the benefit of the collector. With the increasing popularity of the Chambers of Wonder and the development into large collections, the collection items became commercial objects. In order to procure objects for the collections, the collectors had two options: to go on a trip themselves or to buy objects from travelers. Both required substantial financial resources, buying exotic or actually rare objects even more than traveling.

John Tradescant the Elder was an excellent gardener and served in succession to high-ranking nobles. Between 1609 and 1615, his employers included Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury and his son William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Salisbury . John Tradescant made repeated trips to the Netherlands and France to source plants for his masters' gardens. In Paris he made friends with the French court gardener Vespasien Robin , from whom he received numerous plants previously unknown in England. In 1611 Tradescant visited Leiden, whose university at that time had an important anatomical cabinet. Tradescant may have used his stay in the city to visit this collection in addition to buying plants.

From 1615 Tradescant was the gardener of the diplomat Edward Wotton, 1st Baron Wotton . Through this work he had the opportunity to come into contact with world travelers and with sponsors of the English trading companies and branches overseas. John Tradescant the Elder became a partner in the Virginia Company himself with at least two shares, and in 1616 with a deposit of £ 25 a partner in Somers Isles Company , a spin-off of the Virginia Company, also known as the Bermuda Company. He had close contacts with the English adventurer John Smith and with Samuel Argall , who was instrumental in the colonization of Virginia and in the kidnapping of Pocahontas . In February 1617 Tradescant paid £ 25 for a person crossing to Virginia under Captain Argall. It is very likely that he went to Virginia himself.

With Sir Dudley Digges , a partner in the Muscovy Company and the Virginia Company of London , and from 1618 to 1619 Ambassador of England to Tsarist Russia , he traveled to Archangelsk on a diplomatic mission in June 1618 . Tradescant brought back numerous plants from this trip, but also objects for its own collection. In a travelogue written by Tradescant, he repeatedly mentions how he caught birds alive during the trip and prepared their hides after their death. Tradescant was responsible for the supply of provisions on the voyage around the North Cape. In contrast to the rest of the crew, he had many opportunities to leave the ship. He was repeatedly allowed to go ashore to study the plants in the area and to bring specimens with him. Tradescant described difficulties in transporting the plants in his handwritten report. In one case the cabin boys ate almost all the berries from a new type of plant, and on another occasion there was a shortage of water on board, so a plant was watered with sea water and perished. A number of collection items from the Artificialia group listed in the 1656 catalog of the Musaeum Tradescantianum may have come from this trip to Arkhangelsk. The origin from Russia could be proven for a stuffed black-throated diver and for a number of plants.

The connection with Dudley Digges is an example of the numerous contacts that Tradescant was able to establish through its collecting activities and which they used to further expand their collection. Diggins has served as a director, partner, or business partner in numerous overseas companies, including the East India Company , Virginia Company, Muscovy Company, and Somers Isles Company. The global trading relationships of these companies helped to exchange the coveted "rarities", and many of them ended up at Tradescant.

Still in Wotton's service, John Tradescant sailed as a volunteer on a ship of the Royal Navy under the command of Samuel Argall to fight the barbarians in North Africa in 1620 , possibly as far as Constantinople. In 1622 Tradescant entered the service of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham , who was also Lord High Admiral . In 1624 he traveled to the Netherlands on behalf of Buckingham, in 1625 with his master to Paris and in 1627 to the siege of La Rochelle . The plants he brought back from his travels to exotic countries are documented several times in the botanical specialist literature.

In expanding its collection, Tradescant did not shy away from the personal risk associated with travel at the time, nor from soliciting public support. In the files of the British National Archives there is a letter from 1625 to the Minister of the Navy, in which he solicited exotic animals on behalf of the Duke of Buckingham. He directed various traders from the Guinea Company and the Cape Company , including Nicholas Crisp , to obtain a number of Naturalia :

  • the largest elephant skull available ;
  • the largest head of a hippopotamus and a manatee ;
  • the skull of a walrus "with the horns";
  • the hides of all "weird" birds that are "rare or unknown";
  • all kinds of "weird" fish, including "big flying fish";
  • Snake skins, especially those “with a comb like a rooster”;
  • the largest clams and snails;
  • all kinds of "shiny stones", or those with "strange shapes" (precious stones and fossils);
  • all kinds of dried fruit and whatever seeds can be procured;
  • Clothing, weapons and implements;
  • everything "strange".

For the seeds, the instruction was given that the seeds should be dried between the leaves of a book. Here it became clear that Tradescant not only wanted to keep exhibits for his collection, but also used his appeal to the traveling salesmen for his gardening profession, as he looked for “rarities” on his travels as a gardener. Tradescant collected not only for Buckingham, but also for his own museum , and by the time Buckingham was murdered in 1628 he had amassed one of the most important collections of curiosities in Europe and had made numerous contacts. In that year the Tradescants moved to Lambeth, to the house that within a few years became known as The Ark .

1630 was John Tradescant the elder in the service of King Charles I. He was in Oatlands Palace , the residence of Charles's wife Henrietta Maria in Surrey, for the gardens, viticulture and sericulture responsible. For November 1632 it is documented that he asked Charles I about the "horn of unicorns", which is actually "the nose of a fish" and "very valuable against poison". The Musaeum Tradescantianum also received royal sponsorship by 1635 at the latest , when the spurs and a hat of Henry VIII and items from the property of Henry VII were handed over to Tradescant by royal decree. In his will of January 8, 1637, John Tradescant stipulated that if his son wanted to part with the collection, he would offer it to the king. John Tradescant the Elder died on April 15 or 16, 1638.

John Tradescant the Younger, born 1608, was sent to King's School in Canterbury at the age of eleven, where he learned Latin and Greek. In 1634, after several years as a candidate Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Gardeners, the London Livery Company of gardeners.

In 1637, 1642 and 1654 he traveled to the English colony of Virginia on behalf of the king or in connection with the family's tobacco plantations . On these trips, Tradescant, like his father in the past, collected rare plants and imported them to Europe for the first time. In addition, he brought other naturalia and items from the Indian population such as weapons and clothing with him from his travels. The museum holdings were essentially based on the older Tradescant, none of the significant pieces in the collection can be traced back to the younger Tradescant. In 1638 he took over the post of gardener at Oatland Palace, succeeding his late father.

Early literature on the Musaeum Tradescantianum

First mentioned in 1629

John Tradescant the Elder was born in 1629 by the English doctor and botanist John Parkinson in his work Paradisi in sole. Paradisus terrestris mentioned several times as his "very good friend". From the context, however, it is not clear whether the ascription “seeker and keeper of all rarities and variants of nature” refers to more than his work as a gardener.

John Tradescant the Elder: Catalog of Plants from 1634
John Tradescant the Younger: Musaeum Tradescantianum from 1656

Guide to the plant collection from 1634

In his private travel diary, Georg Christoph Stirn noted in 1638 that all kinds of foreign plants were in the garden of the Musaeum Tradescantianum , their names were contained in a little book that Tradescant had printed. This was a list of more than 750 plant species that were present in the garden of the Musaeum Tradescantianum in South Lambeth in 1634 . Only one copy of the book, Plantarum in horto Johannem Tradescanti nascentium catalogus, is preserved in the library of Magdalen College , Oxford. This makes it the rarest botanical work in print , alongside the list of plants drawn up by John Gerard for his garden in Holborn from 1596. The mention by Stirn in 1638 contradicts the view that the book could only have been an unpublished proof. The preservation of only one copy can be explained by the fact that, regardless of the Latin title, it was not a scientific work with the corresponding addressees, but a piece of general literature for museum visitors.

Catalog of the Musaeum Tradescantianum from 1656

Shortly after Elias Ashmole and Thomas Wharton's first visit to the Musaeum Tradescantianum in June 1650, the plan to publish a catalog of the collection matured. In September 1652, a design by Ashole and Wharton was completed and Ashmole was to take over the financing. Publication was delayed until 1656 because of the death of Tradescant's son, Wharton's long illness, and legal battles in which Ashmole was involved. Finally, under the name of John Tradescant the Younger, under the title Musæum Tradescantianum: Or, A Collection of Rarities Preserved at South-Lambeth neer London by John Tradescant published catalog of the Musaeum Tradescantianum is the most important source for the reconstruction of the collection. It is considered the first English publication devoted to a museum and is one of the earliest examples of museum science .

The volume begins with the copperplate engravings made by Wenceslaus Hollar of Tradescant's father and son and some anagrams for both of them written by Walter Stonehouse . This is followed by an eight-page preface by John Tradescant in English, in which he explains the circumstances of the publication and its delay, and two pages of table of contents. The first main part is devoted to the rarities including foreign fruits but without living plants. The 72 pages of this first part are divided into 14 groups:

  1. Birds and their eggs, beaks, feathers, claws and spurs ;
  2. Four-footed animals, with some skins, horns, and hooves ;
  3. Various kinds of weird fish , including whales;
  4. Shellfish , this includes crustaceans, clams and snails;
  5. Insects including snakes;
  6. Minerals , and things related to them such as earth, corals, salts, fossils, precious stones and gems;
  7. Foreign fruits , including seeds, resins, roots, wood, and various medicines and dyes;
  8. Mechanical , carved or turned objects and paintings;
  9. Other types of rarities ;
  10. Weapons ;
  11. Clothing and textiles ;
  12. Appliances and household items ;
  13. Numismata , ancient and modern coins, made of gold, silver and copper, of Hebrew, Greek and Roman origin;
  14. Medals , made of gold, silver, copper and lead.

The second and more extensive main part comprises pages 73 to 178 and is headed XV. Catalogus Plantarum in Horto Johannis Tradescanti, nascentium. This heading is very similar to the title of the plant list published in 1634, but there are now 1,701 instead of 768 plants. In contrast to the first part, which is almost exclusively English and thematically structured, the plants are listed alphabetically here according to their Latin names. Each Latin name is followed by an English name. It is noteworthy that the names almost consistently include two-part names, such as Asparagus sativus (garden asparagus ), Clematis Virginiana and Clematis sylvestris (clematis), Mentha citrata and Mentha crispa (mint).

Only in the case of the collection items contributed by Elias Ashmole or Thomas Wharton can the origin be identified by their names or initials in the descriptions. The last chapter at the end of the catalog lists more than 100 people who contributed to the collections of the Musaeum Tradescantianum . The list begins with the royal couple and the Duke of Buckingham, and includes representatives of the nobility and academics as well as a large number of ship captains and traveling salesmen. The list is sorted in descending order of social rank and in many cases only mentions the family name, so that in many cases no classification was possible for entries such as Browne or Smith . Some names have a title that was no longer relevant in 1656. Several such statements led to the conclusion that the list of names originated in the 1630s and was adopted unchanged by Ashmole and Wharton. From today's point of view, it is also significant that the information on the sponsors of the Musaeum Tradescantianum give a picture of the rulership structure, with the king at the top, from which individual collection items passed through the hands of several nobles and officials to the bourgeois tradescants. The more than 100 patrons named in the catalog formed a dense network through a large number of family and professional connections in which the Duke of Buckingham took the central position.

All early reports and directories have in common that they dispensed with a critical examination of the objects and their descriptions and that the rarities were classified according to the knowledge or supposed knowledge of the time. In Tradescant's 1656 catalog, for example, there is an “orange from the tree on Zebulon's grave” and a sample of the “blood that fell like rain on the Isle of Wight for two hours in 1177 ”, apparently the result of a natural but rare meteorological phenomenon. Further examples of interpretations that are questionable from today's point of view were the tusk of a narwhal as the “horn of a unicorn”, birds of paradise “without legs”, or a “flexible wood”, which may have been gutta-percha . Exceptions are the sober descriptions of the plants, which in many cases served as evidence of the first importation of exotic plants in botanical research and which differ from the plant lists of other gardeners of the time, which were mostly only preserved in manuscript, due to the large number of plants. It has been handed down that Tradescant knew that the "horns of the unicorn" actually came from the narwhal. The catalog seems contradictory on this point and takes into account new findings such as traditional superstitions. The "horn of a unicorn" is listed as Monoceros horne , but the indication of the Unicornu marinum can also be found. There is no confusion because the rhinoceros and swordfish each appear on the same side.

The great importance of the catalog lies in the fact that, with the modest possibilities of the time, an attempt was made for the first time to bring nature into a comprehensive systematic order. The catalog of the Musaeum Tradescantianum was followed in 1665 in London by a printed catalog of the repository , the collection of natural objects of the Royal Society . This publication was connected with the later failed attempt by the Society to develop a universal system of nature. This was followed as publications on specialized collections Martin Lister's Historia Conchylorium from 1686 and Georg Rumpf's Thesaurus Cochlearum from 1711, a small number of further attempts to organize parts of nature, and finally in 1738 Carl von Linné's comprehensive Systema Naturae .

After the closure

In 1676 the English writer Izaak Walton named the Musaeum Tradescantianum in the fifth edition of his book The Compleat Angler . At the time of his visit, probably at the end of 1674, the collection was already in the possession of Elias Ashmole and no longer accessible to the public. In addition to fish such as wrasse, parrotfish , shark, swordfish and an unidentifiable poison fish, Walton also named a dolphin, salamander, sea geese, gannet , birds of paradise, various snakes, bird nests and "many hundreds of other rarities".

Jencquel mentions the Musaeum Tradescantianum and the Ashmolean Museum only in passing in his Museographia in 1727 . However , more than half a century after its closure, he calls the Musaeum “excellent” and refers to the wonderful garden of “very rare” plants. When explaining the term museum, he mentions the Musaeum Tradescantianum, along with a few others, as an example of museums for the public exhibition of objects, in contrast to the private chambers of curiosities. In the bibliography , mostly of works from individual museums, Jencquel also lists Tradescant's catalog from 1656.

The collection of the Musaeum Tradescantianum , without being named as such, was recorded again in 1685 in an unpublished manuscript as the founding collection of the Ashmolean Museum. In 1836 a catalog of the holdings was published by Philip B. Duncan , then curator of the Ashmolean Museum, in which the origin of numerous pieces from the Musaeum Tradescantianum is indicated. It was not until more than three centuries after the museum was closed that Arthur MacGregor attempted to compile a complete catalog of the surviving collection items in his 1983 master's thesis.

Fiction

The first account of the collection, by the English traveler Peter Mundy , dates back to 1634. Peter Mundy was a traveling salesman who spent most of his life in the British Empire. His notes were forgotten for more than 200 years and were only published in five volumes by the Hakluyt Society between 1907 and 1936 . Mundy returned to London on the morning of September 10, 1634 from a six and a half year trip to India. Until November 28, 1634 he was in negotiations with the British East India Company about his departure and his remuneration for services rendered. On one of the following days, while he was preparing in London for the trip to his relatives in the country, he visited the Musaeum Tradescantianum, accompanied by two friends .

In his Hesperides, published in 1648, Robert Herrick alluded to Tradescan snails in the epigram Upon Madam Ursly :

For ropes of pearl, first Madam Ursly shows
A chain of corns picked from her ears and toes;
Then, next, to match Tradescant's curious shells,
Nails from her fingers mew'd she shows: what else?
Why then, forsooth, a carcanet is shown
Of teeth, as deaf as nuts, and all her own.

In the mocking poem Upon Sir Thomas Martin , ascribed to John Cleveland and first printed in 1651, reference is made to Tredescant and his ark of novelties . The poem must have been written after 1648 as it refers to a Sir Thomas Martin who was involved in the expropriation of royalists in Cambridge in 1648.

The English poet Thomas Flatman also mentioned To Mr. Sam in his ridiculous verses published in 1674 . Austin of Wadham Col. Oxon. on his most unintelligible poems the Musaeum Tradescantianum :

Thus John Tradeskin starves our greedy eyes,
By boxing up his new found rarities.

Last years of the Musaeum Tradescantianum

Elias Ashmole , founder of the Ashmolean Museum ( John Riley , late 17th century)

In June 1650, John Tradescant the Younger met Elias Ashmole, who was considered one of the most learned astrologers and alchemists of his time. The two became friends, and Ashmole spent the period November 1652 to January 1653 with his wife in the Tradescants' house. He gave Tradescant the contract to look after the herb garden at Oxford University and provided the impetus and the financial means for the publication of the catalog in 1656. During these years Tradescant's concern for the future of the collection grew, since his only son in September 1652 at the age of 19 Years ago and no one was available to take over and continue the Musaeum . In a document dated December 16, 1659, John Tradescant transferred ownership of the Musaeum Tradescantianum to Elias Ashmole, and the donation was to come into effect upon Tradescant's death.

In 1661 the Musaeum had to close after a tax assessment for the collection as a place of entertainment was issued. With the help of Tradescant's friends it was possible to get the king to repeal the tax bill and exempt Tradescant from the tax, but the museum could not reopen. John Tradescant died on April 22nd, 1662. In his notarized will of April 4th, 1661 Tradescant revoked all previous declarations and bequests and bequeathed the Musaeum to his wife Hester for life. After Hester's death it was to be transferred to one of the universities at Oxford or Cambridge, at their discretion.

Elias Ashmole takes over the Musaeum

Elias Ashmole challenged the will on May 14, 1662. It was not until May 18, 1664 that the court hearing, in which Lord Chancellor Edward Hyde Ashmole granted ownership of the property and museum, and at the same time confirmed the lifelong right of use for Hester Tradescant. A three-person examination committee, with a friend and Ashmoles' father-in-law, was supposed to compare the existing collection with the catalog of 1656, and Hester Tradescant was to be responsible for all items in the collection that had been lost since December 16, 1659. HesterTradescant had told Ashmole that her husband had sold pieces from the collection before his death and acquired others that were not covered by the gift. In addition, at least in 1667, Hester Tradescant repeatedly sold collectibles. In October 1674, Ashmole acquired a house adjoining the Musaeum Tradescantianum and immediately had renovations carried out to increase the available space. On November 26, 1674, he was able to take part of the collections into his possession. On December 1, 1674, Ashmole noted in his diary that he had started to move the rest of the rarities into his house.

Hester Tradescant complained that Ashmole had asked her to hand over the collection under threat of physical violence, and that he had robbed her and cheated of her home and property. But on September 1, 1676, she signed a document in Ashmole's handwriting, in which she admitted that her accusations against Ashmole were unfounded. Her signature was witnessed by a judge and seven other people. On April 4, 1678, she was found drowned in a pond in the garden of the Musaeum Tradescantianum . On April 22, 1678, Ashmole wrote in his diary that he had brought "the paintings" from the house of the Tradescants to his own. A few weeks later the Vice Chancellor of Oxford University toured the collection in Ashmole's house in South Lambeth.

Ashmole now owned the entire collection, the house and the property. He did not present the collection publicly, but only made it available to his learned colleagues. After gaining control of the estate, Ashmole appears to have carefully destroyed all of the Musaeum Tradescantianum's records. For a long time, not a single handwritten document from one of the Tradescants was known. It was not until the early 19th century that a previously unidentified handwritten report by the older Tradescan about his trip to Russia in 1618 was discovered in the manuscripts of the Ashmolean Museum. Ashmole's approach also meant that paintings in the Musaeum Tradescantianum , including most of the representations of the Tradescants, cannot be reliably assigned to any painter to this day.

Ashmolean Museum

Handover of the collection to Oxford University

The first indications of the intended transfer of ownership of the collection of the Musaeum Tradescantianum to Oxford University come from 1670. Elias Ashmole finally donated the collection, including his own library, to Oxford University in October 1677 and tied the handover to the condition that a separate building be built for the collection. He added a few items from his own collecting activities to the collection, but most of his own collection, including the entire library and all silver coins, was lost on January 26, 1679 in a fire in his home in London. The gold coins and his manuscripts that Ashmole had kept with the holdings of the Musaeum Tradescantianum in South Lambeth were preserved. The foundation stone for the museum was laid on May 15, 1679. There is no evidence of Christopher Wren's involvement in the planning and execution of the building; today he is attributed to the architect Thomas Wood.

After the completion of the Ashmolean Museum in March 1683, the collection was packed in 26 boxes, initially by ship and then transported in twelve carloads from South Lambeth to Oxford. The museum, which was established by Robert Plot until the beginning of May , was first presented to the Duke of York, later Jacob II of England, and other high dignitaries on May 21, 1683 . On May 24th & May there was a closed event for the PhDs and Masters of Oxford University, and finally the opening to the public. The collection of the Muaeum Tradescantianum formed the basis of the museum. In 1685 a catalog of the holdings in Latin for the Ashmolean Museum was compiled, but not published. A comparison of the catalog of the Musaeum Tradescantianum from 1656 with the catalog from 1685, carried out two hundred years later, revealed that the newer catalog was basically just an expanded version in the descriptions. With a few exceptions, the holdings of the Ashmolean Museum came from the Musaeum Tradescantianum .

The Ashmolean Museum was the first science museum to be housed in a purpose-built building. On the ground floor of the building there was a reception hall, a lecture hall and a chemical laboratory. The collection of the Musaeum Tradescantianum was in a separate room measuring around 17 × 7.60 meters on the upper floor. The first curator was the natural scientist and chemist Robert Plot until 1690, followed by Edward Lhuyd from 1690 to 1709 , who, like his predecessor, was an important archaeologist. For a long time, their payment and that of the other employees of the museum was financed exclusively from the entrance fees. Both the conception of the building and the appointment of an eminent natural scientist showed Ashmole's intentions. He wanted to turn the Musaeum as a collection of curiosities into an instrument for scientific research and integrate it into the structures of the university. He put the museum in competition with the Bodleian Library , one of the most important libraries and manuscript collections of its time.

Casting of the remains of the dodo in the Ashmolean Museum (Booth Museum of Natural History, Brighton, England)

Collection decay

In the first century after the opening of the Ashmolean Museum, numerous items from the Musaeum Tradescantianum were lost. It also played a role that taxidermy was still new in the 17th century. The stuffed dodo and many other pieces from the old natural history inventory of the Musaeum Tradescantianum were destroyed by mold and animal damage. After the Oxford University Vice Chancellor's annual inspection of the collection in January 1755, numerous damaged pieces were withdrawn from the exhibition, including most of the birds, eggs and insects. Only the mummified head with the beak and one leg of the dodo have survived. In 1825, Philip B. Boyd, the curator of the Ashmolean Museum at the time, declared that the zoological specimens in Tradescant's collection, with the exception of the bones and horns, were long gone. Almost all the birds were from himself, his brother and predecessor John Shute Duncan, or their friends. On the other hand, he pointed out that almost all fish and reptiles came from the stock of the old Musaeum Tradescantianum .

The lack of appreciation for the objects from the Musaeum Tradescantianum was also evident when a member of the Royal Archaeological Institute complained in 1881 about the state of the archaeological collections at Oxford University. He reported that valuable objects made of silver, amber and agate, which were already listed in the catalog of 1656, had been stored unsecured in a box in an easily accessible annex of the museum together with archaeological finds from other origins for years. Of the dozen unique items of Indian origin from Virginia, which Tradescant had listed in its catalog in 1656, only nine could be detected at the beginning of the 20th century. The Indian canoe and the clothing of the Virginia Algonquin and Greenland Inuit have also been lost, with the exception of a few items such as Powhatan's cloak .

Oliver Cromwell's death mask , Ashmolean Museum

Exchange with other museums

Large parts of the collection, as far as they were still preserved, were given to other museums at Oxford University. In 1855, the inventory of natural history objects in the Ashmolean Museum was transferred to the newly founded Oxford University Museum of Natural History , which included almost all of the objects in the Musaeum Tradescantianum from this area. The coin collection followed in 1860 and moved to the Bodleian Library . Finally, in 1886, dozens of the ethnographic exhibits went to the Pitt Rivers Museum , including most of the remaining items from the Musaeum Tradescantianum , while the Ashmolean Museum was dedicated to archeology and received items from other collections in return.

In his inaugural address as curator of the Ashmolean Museum, Arthur Evans expressed his intention as early as 1884 to create a separate area for the preserved exhibits of the Musaeum Tradescantianum , a museum within Museo . In 1886 the remains were housed in three showcases on the ground floor, a little later a large part of them was given to the Pitt Rivers Museum.

Merging of the remaining items in the collection

In 1909 the Ashmolean Museum published a printed guide to the museum. In the introduction the role of John Tradescants was appreciated, the history of the Musaeum Tradescantianum was presented and the takeover of the collection by Elias Ashmole was briefly described. At that time, an area around the staircase, the Tradescant lobby , was reserved for the remaining pieces from the Musaeum Tradescantianum on the first floor of the museum . The museum guide pointed out that a number of objects came from the Musaeum der Tradescants.

On May 22, 1978, the Tradescant Room was opened in the Ashmolean Museum , in which the objects of the Musaeum Tradescantianum preserved in the Ashmolean Museum are brought together in one place. When designing this area, the aim was to create the impression of a 17th century museum with modern means. The windows of the old Ashmolean Museum on Broad Street are recreated from a contemporary engraving and historical photograph from the 19th century. Furniture from the early 17th century served as a template for the design of the facility.

During the renovation work carried out in the Ashmolean Museum from 2006 to 2009, 137 former collection items from the Musaeum Tradescantianum were loaned to the neighboring Museum of the History of Science , the Old Ashmolean .

Obtained objects

As part of Arthur MacGregor's master's thesis at Durham University , the most comprehensive work on the history of the Musaeum Tradescantianum and the Ashmolean Museum, catalogs of the pieces from the Musaeum Tradescantianum that have survived to this day were created . It lists 441 individual objects, most of which were already mentioned in the 1656 catalog. The most important are:

  • Naturalia:
    • Dodo, the mummified head with a beak and a barrel, in the Zoological Collection of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History;
  • 17th century paintings and engravings including
  • Historical:
    • a pair of stirrups and other items owned by Henry VIII ;
    • Oliver Cromwell's death mask , possibly the form from which the numerous existing masks were stripped;
  • Ethnology:
    • carved Chinese ivory figures , 17th century;
    • Turned openwork and interlocking spheres made of ivory of German and Chinese origin;
    • Few Indian garments, including the Powhatan's Mantle of Chief Wahunsonacock, a coat made of reindeer leather of Canadian origin; and the Virginia Purse , an ornate Algonquin belt pouch, all in the Ashmolean Museum;
    • three tomahawks of North American descent, in the Ashmolean Museum;
    • a Mi'kmaq birch bark canoe , 173 centimeters long, apparently a toy, is in the Pitt Rivers Museum;
    • a Greenland kayak paddle in the Pitt Rivers Museum, three other paddles still in the Ashmolean Museum in 1685 and a kayak are lost

Location of the house and property

"Turret House" and "Stamford House" in South Lambeth, around 1825

Hester Tradescant lived in the former museum building until her death in 1678. From 1680 at the latest, Elias Ashmole lived at least temporarily in the building. After Ashmole's death in 1692, the house and property passed to Ashmole's heirs. In 1749 two botanists visited the property and found a number of exotic plants in the garden, including several very old trees that thrived unusually well and some of which were already on the Musaeum Tradescantianum's list of plants from 1634.

The house was rebuilt several times in the 18th and 19th centuries and added extensions so that the original division into living area and museum in the middle of the 19th century could no longer be traced. Ashmole's heirs divided up the property and the building and sold it piece by piece. The older part of the building was known as Stamford House. The London antiquarian, librarian and archivist Andrew Coltée Ducarel spent the last years of his life there from 1773 to 1785. Around 1850 the building was occupied by JA Fulton, owner of a nearby spice mill. The newer part was named Turret House. It was sold to John Small in 1760, where Charles Bedford lived in 1809 and James Thorne, one of the owners of Thorne Brewery, around 1850. Over time, the house fell into disrepair and the garden became overgrown. In February 1881 the house and property were auctioned off as part of Thorne's estate and the building was demolished. The area was later built over, the original location of the Musaeum Tradescantianum is now on Tradescant Road and South Lambeth Road.

Public souvenir

Grave of the Tradescant family, with unusual reliefs
Grave of the Tradescants, face with skull and seven-headed hydra
Stained glass window with the coat of arms of John Tradescant the Elder , in the Old Ashmolean Building , Oxford
Sculpture in front of St. Stephens Church in Stockwell

The grave of the Tradescant family, with the two John Tradescants, their wives and the young deceased third John Tradescant are buried here, is on the Thames in the graveyard of the former church of St. Mary-at-Lambeth in North Lambeth . It was one of the first tombs for important personalities that was not located inside a church, but in the open. The sandstone sarcophagus is decorated on all sides with reliefs that relate to the tradescants and their life's work and which were slightly changed in later restorations compared to the first version. Trees are shown at the corners. The front sides show the coat of arms of the Tradescants and a seven-headed hydra with a skull. Antique buildings and “curiosities” are depicted on the sides, including a crocodile.

In 1662, the lid of the sarcophagus bore only a simple inscription:

This monument was erected at the charge of Hester
Tradescant, the relict of John Tradescant, late
deceased, who was buried the 25th of April 1662.

The grave was restored in 1773 and 1853, and donations were publicly sought for funding. On the occasion of the restoration in 1773, an inscription was placed on the lid in memory of the Tradescants, the poem refers to the collection and to the horticultural activity of the Tradescants:

"Know, stranger, ere thou pass, beneath this stone
Lie John Tradescant, grandsire, father, son:
The last dy'd in his spring; the other two
Liv'd till they had traveled art and nature thro ',
As by their choice collections may appear,
Of what is rare in land, in seas, in air;
Whilst they (as Homer's Iliad in a nut)
A world of wonders in one closet shut.
These famous antiquarians that had been.
Both gardiners to the Rose and Lilly Queen,
Transplanted now themselves, sleep here; and when
Angels shall with their trumpets awaken men.
And fire shall purge the world, these hence shall rise,
And change their garden for a paradise. "

During the restoration in 1853, the lid of the sarcophagus was replaced; the execution from 1773 is now in the Ashmolean Museum. The Church of St. Mary-at-Lambeth was scheduled to be demolished in 1976. Citizens of the community then founded the Tradescant Trust and were able to secure the renovation and maintenance of the church with donations and public funds. The former church property on Lambeth Road is now the seat of the Garden Museum , also in memory of the Tradescants .

The memory of the two John Tradescants is primarily the memory of two outstanding gardeners and botanists. The plant genus Tradescantia was named after them as early as the middle of the 18th century , to which some indoor plants also belong. The Musaeum Tradescantianum was long forgotten, it was only in the mid-19th century that its role and that of the tradescants in the founding of the Ashmolean Museum was highlighted. On May 17, 1927 , four stained glass windows were inaugurated in the stairwell of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History , the Old Ashmolean Building , showing the family crests of Elias Ashmole, Christopher Wren, Robert Plot and John Tradescant.

In 1988, a sculpture in memory of the Tradescants was erected in front of St Stephen's Church in Stockwell, London, on the corner of Wilkinson Street and St Stephen's Terrace. The steel and concrete monument was created by the sculptor Hilary Cartmel . It was funded by donations from citizens and government funds and was unveiled by botanist and environmentalist David Bellamy. The location is in close proximity to the former seat of the Musaeum Tradescantianum .

Web links

Commons : Musaeum Tradescantianum  - collection of images, videos and audio files

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b without author: Introduction , website of the Ashmolean Museum, 2011, online , accessed March 31, 2014.
  2. ^ Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants: Gardeners and Botanists , pp. 9-10.
  3. ^ Silvio A. Bedini: The Evolution of Science Museums , pp. 1 and 7.
  4. ^ Arthur MacGregor: Collectors and Collections of Rarities in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries , pp. 70-71.
  5. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , pp. 92-93.
  6. ↑ a b Silvio A. Bedini: The Evolution of Science Museums , p. 9.
  7. ↑ Silvio A. Bedini: The Evolution of Science Museums , p. 10.
  8. ^ Arthur MacGregor: Collectors and Collections of Rarities in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries , pp. 74-75.
  9. ^ Arthur MacGregor: Collectors and Collections of Rarities in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries , p. 71.
  10. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , pp. 95-96.
  11. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , p. 97.
  12. ^ Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants as Collectors of Rarities , pp. 17-18.
  13. ^ A b Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants as Collectors of Rarities , p. 18.
  14. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , p. 99.
  15. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , pp. 93-94.
  16. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , pp. 99-100.
  17. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , p. 100.
  18. ↑ a b without author: The Tradescant Collection , Ashmolean Museum website, 2011, online , accessed March 31, 2014.
  19. ↑ a b c Arthur MacGregor: The Ashmolean as a Museum of Natural History, 1683-1860 , p. 126.
  20. ↑ a b Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for insularity , S. 98th
  21. ^ Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , p. 81.
  22. ↑ William Ryan Chapman: Ethnology in the Museum , Chapter 4.6, pages 212-218.
  23. ^ A b c Arthur MacGregor: The Ashmolean as a Museum of Natural History, 1683-1860 , p. 125.
  24. ^ Arthur MacGregor: The Ashmolean as a Museum of Natural History, 1683-1860 , pp. 125-126.
  25. ^ A b Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants as Collectors of Rarities , pp. 19-20.
  26. ^ A b Richard Carnac Temple (ed.): The travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608–1667. Vol. III, Part I , p. 1.
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  28. ^ Richard Carnac Temple (ed.): The travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608–1667. Vol. III, Part I , pp. 2-3.
  29. ↑ a b c d Chris Gosden: Anthropology and archeology. A changing relationship , p. 21.
  30. ↑ Arthur MacGregor, Melanie Medonça, Julia White: Ashmolean Museum - Manuscript Catalogs of the Early Museum Collections 1683-1886 (Part I) (= British Archaeological Reports, International Series 907), Archaeopress, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-84171-206- X , p. 210.
  31. ↑ John Tradescant (the younger): Musæum Tradescantianum , p. 1.
  32. ^ A b John Tradescant (the younger): Musæum Tradescantianum , p. 2.
  33. ↑ John Tradescant (the younger): Musæum Tradescantianum , p. 3.
  34. ^ Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants as Collectors of Rarities , pp. 21-22.
  35. ^ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , p. 253.
  36. ↑ John Ray, The ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the county of Warwick, Esq. John Martyn, London 1678, pp. 153-154, pp. 193-194, p. 322, p. 333; archive.org .
  37. ↑ Caspar Friedrich Neickel (that is Kaspar Friedrich Jencquel): Museographia , pp. 2-6.
  38. ↑ a b c Robert Theodoere Gunther: Early British Botanists and Their Gardens , S. 345th
  39. ^ A b Wilma George: Sources and Background to Discoveries of New Animals in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries , p. 96.
  40. ^ A b John Tradescant (the younger): Musæum Tradescantianum , p. 4.
  41. ↑ a b Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 244–245.
  42. ↑ John Timbs: Eccentricities of the Animal Creation . Seeley, Jackson and Halliday, London 1869, p. 169 archive.org .
  43. ^ Wilma George, Sources and Background to Discoveries of New Animals in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries , p. 94.
  44. ^ Charles Tomlinson: Milton: Birds of Paradise . In: Notes and Queries , 8th Series, Volume IX, Number 221, March 21, 1896, p. 236, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  45. ↑ a b John Tradescant (the younger): Musæum Tradescantianum , p. 7.
  46. ^ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 393-394.
  47. ^ A b c David I. Bushnell: Virginia - From Early Records . In: American Anthropologist, New Series , Volume 9, Number 1, 1907, pp. 31-44 and panels II-VII, JSTOR 659018 , here pp. 38-41 and panels V-VII.
  48. ↑ a b Gregory A. Waselkov: Indian Maps of the Colonial Southeast , S. 453rd
  49. ↑ John Tradescant (the younger): Musæum Tradescantianum , p. 47.
  50. ↑ Gregory A. Waselkov: Indian Maps of the Colonial Southeast , note 38, pp 490-491.
  51. ^ A b c Edward B. Tylor: Notes on Powhatan's Mantle. Preserved in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford . In: International Archive for Ethnography , Volume 1, 1888, pp. 215–217, Plate XX, archive.org .
  52. ^ Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , p. 75.
  53. ↑ a b c Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , pp. 73-74.
  54. ^ Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , p. 65.
  55. ^ Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , p. 71.
  56. ↑ a b Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 291-292.
  57. ^ Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants as Collectors of Rarities , p. 19.
  58. ↑ a b c d Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, p. 166.
  59. ↑ Panida Lorlertratna: A Quest for Insularity , p. 102.
  60. ↑ a b Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , p. 251.
  61. ↑ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 266–267.
  62. ^ Alfred Ransford: Rainsford Associations with Shakespeare. Southampton and Hall . In: Notes and Queries , May 28, 1927, pp. 383-385, here p. 384, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  63. ↑ Alexander Brown: The genesis of the United States , Volume 2, p. 1032.
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  65. ↑ a b c Andrew Coltée Ducarel: A Letter from Dr. Ducarel , p. 82.
  66. ↑ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 390–391.
  67. ↑ a b c Chris Gosden: Anthropology and archeology. A changing relationship , p. 20.
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  71. ↑ Alexander Brown: The genesis of the United States , Volume 2, p. 1039.
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  82. ^ A b Samuel Weller Singer: John Tradescant Probably an Englishman, and his Voyage to Russia in 1618 . In: Notes and Queries , 1st Series, Volume V, Number 81, May 17, 1851, pp. 391-393, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  83. ↑ Robert Theodoere Gunther: Early British Botanists and Their Gardens , S. 303rd
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  85. ↑ Robert Theodoere Gunther: Early British Botanists and Their Gardens , S. 334th
  86. ↑ a b c d April London: "Musaeum Tradescantianum" and the Benefactors to the Tradescants' Museum , p. 24.
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  89. ↑ John Tradescant (the younger): Musæum Tradescantianum , pp. 73–178.
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  92. ^ April London: "Musaeum Tradescantianum" and the Benefactors to the Tradescants' Museum , p. 25.
  93. ↑ Chris Gosden: Anthropology and archeology. A changing relationship , p. 22.
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  96. ^ William Pinkerton: Mazer Wood: Gutta Percha . In: Notes and Queries , 1st Series, Volume III, Number 74, March 29, 1851, p. 239, ISSN  0029-3970 .
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  98. ↑ a b c d e George Simonds Boulger: Tradescant, John (1608–1662) . In: Sidney Lee (Ed.): Dictionary of National Biography, Volume LVII
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  101. ↑ Caspar Friedrich Neickel (that is Kaspar Friedrich Jencquel): Museographia , p. 450.
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  108. ^ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , p. 248.
  109. ^ A b c Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, pp. Xxi.
  110. ^ William Pinkerton: The Family of the Tradescants . In: Notes and Queries , 1st Series, Volume V, Number 81, May 17, 1851, pp. 393-394, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  111. ↑ a b c Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , p. 41.
  112. ^ A b Samuel Weller Singer: The Tredescants and Elias Ashmole . In: Notes and Queries , Series 1, Volume V, Number 129, April 17, 1852, pp. 367-368, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  113. ^ A b Samuel Weller Singer: The Tredescants and Elias Ashmole . In: Notes and Queries , Series 1, Volume V, Number 130, April 24, 1852, pp. 385-387, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  114. ↑ Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , pp. 42–43.
  115. ^ A b Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, pp. Xxi – xxii.
  116. ^ A b c Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, pp. Xxii.
  117. ↑ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 248–249.
  118. ^ A b Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, pp. Xxiii.
  119. ^ A b Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, pp. Xxii – xxiii.
  120. ↑ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 254-256.
  121. ^ Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, pp. Xxiii – xxvi.
  122. ^ Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , p. 40.
  123. ↑ a b Ashmolean Museum (Ed.): Summary Guide , p. 5.
  124. ^ A b Anthony Wood: Athenae Oxonienses , column 357.
  125. ^ Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , p. 46.
  126. ^ A b Anthony Wood: Athenae Oxonienses , column 358.
  127. ^ Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , p. 47.
  128. ↑ a b c Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , p. 49.
  129. ^ A b Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , p. 52.
  130. ↑ John Ayliffe: The Antient and Present State of the University of Oxford . 2 volumes. E. Curll, London 1714, Volume 1, p. 475, Volume 1  - Internet Archive and Volume 2  - Internet Archive .
  131. ^ A b Arthur John Evans: The Ashmolean as a home of archeology in Oxford. An Inaugural Lecture Given in the Ashmolean Museum November 20, 1884 , Parker & Co., Oxford 1884, Online , accessed March 31, 2014.
  132. ^ A b Arthur MacGregor: The Ashmolean as a Museum of Natural History, 1683-1860 , pp. 126-127.
  133. ^ Silvio A. Bedini: The Evolution of Science Museums , p. 28.
  134. ↑ Charles Knight: Wren, Sir Christopher . In: The English Cyclopaedia . A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography, Volume VI.
  135. ↑ Chris Gosden: Anthropology and archeology. A changing relationship , pp. 21-22.
  136. ^ Martin Welch: The Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum , p. 51.
  137. ^ William Ryan Chapman: Ethnology in the Museum , Chapter 8.1, pp. 464-470.
  138. ^ A b Arthur MacGregor: The Ashmolean as a Museum of Natural History, 1683-1860 , p. 137.
  139. ↑ a b Ronald Francis Ovenell: The Tradescant Dodo . In: Archives of natural history , Volume 19, Number 2, 1992, pp. 145–152, doi: 10.3366 / anh.1992.19.2.145 .
  140. ^ Arthur MacGregor, Abigail Headon: Re-inventing the Ashmolean. Natural history and natural theology at Oxford in the 1820s to 1850s . In: Archives of natural history , Volume 27, Number 3, 2000, pp. 369-406, here pp. 371-372, p. 404, doi: 10.3366 / anh.2000.27.3.369 .
  141. ^ Greville J. Chester: Notes on the present and future of the archaeological collections of the University of Oxford , A. Thos. Shrimpton & Son, Oxford 1881, pp. 11-12, Wikisource , archive.org .
  142. ^ A b David I. Bushnell: The Tradescant Collection . In: American Anthropologist, New Series , Volume 10, Number 3, 1908, p. 494 and Plate XXX, JSTOR 659876 .
  143. ^ Ashmolean Museum (Ed.): Summary Guide , p. 6.
  144. ^ A b Ronald Francis Ovenell: The Ashmolean Museum 1683-1894 , Clarendon Press, Oxford 1986, ISBN 0-19-951542-5 , pp. 251-252, 255, 264.
  145. ↑ Ashmolean Museum (Ed.): Summary Guide , pp. 5-6.
  146. ^ Ashmolean Museum (Ed.): Summary Guide , pp. 110–115.
  147. ^ Humphrey Case: Preface , p. V.
  148. ↑ Verity Shaw (Ed.): Annual Report of the Visitors of The Ashmolean Museum. August 2005 – July 2006 , Oxford University, Oxford 2006, pp. 53–54, Online PDF ( Memento of the original from April 7, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 20.0 MB, accessed March 31, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ashmus.org
  149. ^ Keith Davies: Zoological Specimens in the University Museum Attributed to the Tradescant Collection . In: Arthur MacGregor: The Ashmolean as a museum of natural history, 1683-1860 , pp. 346-349.
  150. ^ Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Vol. 1, p. 171, pp. 174-177, pp. 180-182.
  151. ^ Ashmolean Museum (ed.): Summary Guide , p. 110.
  152. ^ Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, pp. 170-171.
  153. ^ Gerald Taylor: Catalog of Paintings from the Foundation Collection of the Ashmolean Museum . In: Arthur MacGregor: The Ashmolean as a Museum of Natural History, 1683–1860 , pp. 297–333, here p. 309.
  154. ^ Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, p. 167.
  155. ^ Ashmolean Museum (ed.): Summary Guide , p. 111.
  156. ^ Rachael Emily Malleson Poole: Catalog of portraits , Volume 1, p. 206.
  157. ↑ Shih Ching-fei: Concentric Ivory Spheres and the Exchange of Craft Techniques: Canton, the Ch'ing Court and the Holy Roman Empire (Chinese, with English summary). In: The National Palace Museum Research Quarterly , Volume 25, Number 2, 2007, pp. 87-138, here p. 105, Figure 22a on p. 132, ISSN  1011-9094 .
  158. ↑ Tibor Tarnai: Ivory Polyhedra Turned on a Lathe . In: George W. Hart, Reza Sarhangi (Ed.): Proceedings of Bridges 2010: Mathematics, Music, Art, Architecture, Culture , Tessellations Publishing, Melbourne 2010, ISBN 978-0-9846042-0-3 , p. 399– 402
  159. ↑ Arthur MacGregor (Ed.): Tradescant's Rarities , Oxford 1983, pp. 288-290.
  160. ^ Ashmolean Museum (ed.): Summary Guide , pp. 110–111.
  161. ^ Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , p. 87.
  162. ^ Christian F. Feest: Virginia Indian Miscellany II . In: Archiv für Völkerkunde , Volume 21, 1967, pp. 5–25, here pp. 10–11.
  163. ^ Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , p. 77.
  164. ^ Christian F. Feest: North America in the European Wunderkammer , pp. 68-69.
  165. ^ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , p. 249.
  166. ^ William Watson: Some account of the remains of John Tradescant's Garden at Lambeth . In: Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775) , Volume 46, 1749-1750, pp. 160-161, JSTOR 104620 .
  167. ↑ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 295-296.
  168. ↑ Robert Theodoere Gunther: Early British Botanists and Their Gardens , S. 335th
  169. ↑ a b Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , pp. 243–244.
  170. ^ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , p. 296.
  171. ↑ Andrew Coltée Ducarel: A Letter from Dr. Ducarel , pp. 85-86.
  172. ↑ JR Thorne: Ancestors for Sale: The Tradescants . In: Notes and Queries , 6th Series, Volume III, Number 60, February 19, 1881, p. 147, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  173. ^ Gilbert Sidney Parry: Inscriptions in the Churchyard of St. Mary's, Lambeth . In: Notes and Queries , 11th series, Volume XII, November 20, 1915, pp. 396-398, here p. 396, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  174. ↑ Andrew Coltée Ducarel: A Letter from Dr. Ducarel , pp. 86-87.
  175. ↑ English Heritage: List entry 1116214, Tomb of John Tradescant and his Family in St Mary's Churchyard, Lambeth Road , Online ( Memento of the original from May 2, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed March 31, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / list.english-heritage.org.uk
  176. ↑ Thomas Allen: The History and Antiquities of the Parish of Lambeth, and the Archiepiscopal Palace, in the County of Surrey , J. Allen, London 1827, p. 142, archive.org .
  177. ^ Charles Knight: The English Cyclopaedia. A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography, Volume VI , Bradbury and Evans, London 1856, Lemma “Tradescant, John”, archive.org .
  178. ↑ without author: Tomb of the Tradescants . In: Notes and Queries , 1st Series, Volume V, Number 129, April 17, 1852, p. 384, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  179. ^ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , p. 298.
  180. ^ Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants: Gardeners and Botanists , p. 15.
  181. ^ Arthur MacGregor: The Tradescants: Gardeners and Botanists , p. 16.
  182. ^ Joseph Christianowitsch Hamel: England and Russia , p. 295.
  183. ↑ without author: Notes . In: Notes and Queries , May 21, 1927, p. 362, ISSN  0029-3970 .
  184. ↑ Public Monuments and Sculpture Association: The John Tradescant Memorial, Wilkinson St. , Online ( Memento of the original from April 7, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed March 31, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / pmsa.org.uk

Coordinates: 51 ° 28 ′ 42.2 "  N , 0 ° 7 ′ 23.2"  W.