Psychotherapy research

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The psychotherapy research focuses on the efficacy and mode of action of psychotherapeutic methods. In view of the large number of schools and methods of psychotherapy, it should be noted that the therapeutic schools sometimes postulate very different criteria for assessing therapeutic success. Some therapeutic effects have not yet been made measurable ( operationalized ) and are therefore hardly accessible to empirical research. Therefore, some results are controversial.

Research content and methods

In the result of research and effectiveness check , or (Engl.) Outcome -Research interested in the question of whether (or to what extent) Psychotherapy works, or whether a therapy is more effective than the other ( therapy Comparative Research ). As a rule, quantitative or group statistical methods, but also individual case studies are used here. A distinction can be made between efficacy - studies (efficacy of psychotherapy under ideal conditions) and Effectiveness Studies (effectiveness of psychotherapy under real conditions). The standard method in efficacy studies is the randomized controlled study design ( RCT ) with the aim of achieving the highest possible internal validity . The question of effectiveness is best answered by systematic naturalistic studies ( quasi-experimental design without randomization ), with the aim of achieving the highest possible external validity and generalizability of the results to other therapists, patients and clinical settings.

Process research , on the other hand, focuses on the processes and modes of action of psychotherapy. B. Effects of psychotherapy such as the therapeutic relationship. Both quantitative and qualitative research methods are used here.

Process-outcome research examines the relationship between therapy process and outcome.

Meta-analyzes are used to aggregate and summarize the results of various individual investigations on the same question with the help of quantitative statistical methods . The central statement (e.g. effectiveness of a certain intervention) is reported in the form of effect sizes , pp. 34–37 .

Increasingly often is efficiency (Engl. Efficiency ) psychotherapeutic interventions using health economics studied methods.

Phases of psychotherapy research

In 1990 Meyer described three phases of psychotherapy research:

  1. The classic phase began in 1895 with the individual case studies by Freud and Breuer ("Studies on Hysteria"), which are methodologically based on the intra-individual before-after comparison.
  2. The justification phase began in 1952 with the provocative thesis of Hans Jürgen Eysenck that psychotherapy does not work better than no treatment or a non-specific treatment (see below).
  3. The Differential psychotherapy efficiency research not treated more the question of whether psychotherapy works, but "what treatment measure by whom, within what time [...] in this individual with this particular problem under what conditions to which result in what time" leads. P. 289

Building on this, Klaus Grawe (1992, 1997) postulated the following four phases of psychotherapy research:

  1. Legitimacy phase (Engl. Legitimation phase ): question of the effectiveness ( "Is psychotherapy effective?")
  2. Competition phase (Engl. Competition phase question of:) comparative effect ( "What form of psychotherapy is better or best?")
  3. Prescription period (. English prescriptive phase ): question of the differential indication ( "What form of psychotherapy is indicated with whom?")
  4. Process research phase (. Engl process-research phase ): question of the mode of operation ( "In what way affects psychotherapy?")

In the Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change , David Orlinsky et al. four phases of psychotherapy research:

  1. late 1920s to early 1950s: start of systematic therapy outcome research
  2. around 1955 to 1970: Search for scientific accuracy, start of process results research
  3. around 1970 to 1985: phase of “expansion, differentiation and organization”, focus on objective, quantitative and experimental studies, emergence of meta-analyzes; Increased interest in the therapeutic relationship as part of process research and in therapeutic events during the sessions
  4. since 1985: phase of "consolidation, standardization and elaboration, but also fundamental criticism, innovation and controversy": publication of various long-term studies (e.g. the NIMH study on the treatment of depression), implementation of randomized-controlled studies on manualized therapies in patients with specific diagnoses, further development of statistical methods for data analysis (e.g. hierarchical linear modeling ), but also the emergence of criticism of group statistical methods , development of alternative individualized approaches (e.g. patient profiling , see below) and further development and greater dissemination of qualitative approaches, Controversy about evidence-based psychotherapy (cf. Evidence-based medicine ) and the methods based on the "medical model" or pharmaceutical studies , inclusion of health economic aspects against the background of scarce resources and new developments (e.g. managed care ) in society unity.

Results

effectiveness

In 1952, Hans-Jürgen Eysenck published a review of 24 psychotherapy studies (19 on " eclectic psychotherapy", 5 on psychoanalysis ), whose success rates he compared with the spontaneous remission rates found in two studies in untreated patients. From the results (extent of improvement in psychoanalysis 44%, in eclectic therapies 65% and largely untreated patients 72%) he concluded that there was no improvement in neurotic disorders under psychotherapy ("the figures fail to support the hypothesis that psychotherapy facilitates recovery from neurotic disorder "), d. H. the observed rates of improvement are due to spontaneous remission . He also called for well-planned and conducted experimental studies (with control group design). While the demand for experimental studies was taken up, its substantive conclusion was often questioned and described by Donald J. Kiesler as the “myth of spontaneous remission”. In a reanalysis in 1971 , Allen Bergin stated, among other things, non-comparable control groups, arithmetic errors and misinterpretations of the original data, a lack of comparable result criteria, diagnostic ambiguities and variations in the therapeutic dose. Cheryl L. McNeilly and Kenneth I. Howard published a 1991 reanalysis of the original data from Eysencks' review, taking into account the duration of therapy. With the help of probit analyzes , they came to the conclusion that in psychotherapy patients the improvement rate after eight weeks is 50%, in untreated patients it is only 2%. According to this model, psychotherapy achieves in 15 sessions what spontaneous remission takes two years for ("psychotherapy accomplishes in about 15 sessions what spontaneous remission takes two years to do"). In the meantime, psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in thousands of studies and hundreds of meta-analyzes. For example, Lipsey and Wilson (1993) analyzed 302 meta-analyzes of psychological, educational and behavioral therapies and came to an "overwhelmingly positive result" (90% of the effect sizes were above 0.10 and 85% above 0.20), indicating that they were of a methodological artifact went out. However, a methodologically more stringent selection (156 meta-analyzes) still yielded a positive result with a mean effect size of 0.47.

Comparative effect

In a review of comparative psychotherapy studies from 1975, Lester Luborsky and colleagues came to the much-cited result "everyone has won and everyone has to get a prize" (also known as the "Dodo Bird Verdict", alluding to the quote from Alice in Wonderland and an article by Rosenzweig from 1936). In 1977, in their meta-analysis of almost 400 comparative therapy studies, Smith and Glass also came to the conclusion that psychotherapy is effective, but that the individual forms of psychotherapy do not differ significantly in terms of their effectiveness.

Various authors criticized, however, that equating all psychotherapies with regard to their effect and mode of action fosters a “uniformity myth” that does not correspond to the heterogeneity of the patients and the therapists' approach. Klaus Grawe commented in 1989: "The fact that previous comparative therapy research has not been able to demonstrate any consistent differences in the effect of the various therapy methods must not be interpreted as meaning that such differences actually do not exist."

In the early 1990s, Klaus Grawe's working group published the most extensive meta-analysis of comparative psychotherapy studies to date, in which all psychotherapeutic efficacy studies carried out up to 1983/84 were taken into account. Based on the results of his meta-analysis, Grawe divided the large number of psychotherapeutic procedures into four groups:

  1. Therapy methods for which there was no evidence of effectiveness (at that time the analytical therapy according to CG Jung , neuro-linguistic programming , the primary therapy according to Janov, rebirthing , etc.);
  2. Therapy methods, the effectiveness of which has been investigated relatively well, but has been questioned rather than confirmed by the available findings;
  3. Therapy methods for which a certain number of effectiveness studies were available, but their number was too small and / or the results were too ambiguous to be included in the tried and tested therapy methods with proven effectiveness (then e.g. bioenergetic therapy , analysis of existence , catathymes Picture life , individual therapy according to Adler, music therapy , dance and art therapy , transaction analysis , gestalt therapy , systemic therapy );
  4. Therapy methods, the effectiveness of which had been proven beyond doubt based on a large number of controlled effectiveness studies (at that time cognitive behavioral therapy , conversation psychotherapy and psychoanalytic therapies of short and medium length up to 100 sessions, in this order; however, no proof of effectiveness was available for long-term psychoanalytic treatments with several hundred sessions).

These results, v. a. the result statement, (cognitive) "behavior therapy is on average highly significantly more effective than psychoanalytic therapy" p. 662 , was discussed very controversially in German-speaking countries and was questioned, above all, from the psychoanalytical side.

Differential indication

Differential indication refers to the question of which form of psychotherapy is indicated for whom. According to Grawe, until the beginning of the 1990s, this question was only scientifically dealt with sporadically (first studies in the 1970s) and can be divided into three phases:

  1. Indication rules enshrined in (psychotherapeutic) "school thinking" (e.g. earlier assumption that mild cases would be suitable for behavioral therapy, severe cases for depth psychological therapy)
  2. Empirical search for indications (which led to a refutation of the above-mentioned indication rules, but also to a disjointed and contradicting large number of individual findings p. 148 )
  3. Differential indication research guided by cross-school theoretical ideas. So was z. For example, it was found that patients with a high level of directivity (a high need for self-determination or high “reactance”) benefit more from less structured, non-directive therapies (such as talk therapy), whereas submissive patients benefit more from directive procedures (such as e.g. B. behavior therapy). Pp. 148-150

There have been further developments in the field of differential indication since the 1990s. For example, a meta-analysis of 53 studies on the effectiveness of different therapy methods showed that interpersonal therapy is most effective, especially for depression in adults , while non-structured therapy without specific psychological techniques ( general supportive / advisory treatment ) was the least effective.

Another meta-study compared the effectiveness of different forms of treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder . Among the psychotherapies, behavior therapy and desensitization through eye movements were the most effective.

According to a meta-analysis of 33 studies with a total of 2,256 participants, psychodynamic methods and dialectical-behavioral therapy are more effective than other methods in borderline personality disorder .

Prediction of individual therapy courses

Kenneth I. Howard and colleagues introduced the patient-oriented method of patient profiling in 1996 to answer the question "Will this particular patient benefit from this therapy?" to be able to answer individually in practice. The theoretical background is the dose-response model and the phase model of psychotherapeutic change developed by Howard and colleagues based on it. The dose-response model describes (on the basis of empirical data) an average recovery process, in which the extent of improvement is greatest at the beginning of therapy and then decreases with increasing number of sessions. The phase model postulates three successive phases of psychotherapeutic change: (a) remoralization (improvement of well-being), (b) remediation (improvement of symptoms) and (c) rehabilitation (permanent change in behavior). Based on these models, a log-linear recovery process was assumed in psychotherapy patients. In the patient profiling method , hierarchical linear modeling is used to calculate a prediction of the individual course of therapy on the basis of a large naturalistic sample of psychotherapy patients and the patient's initial values ​​at the start of therapy. A review of the log-linear model including seven patient characteristics (including symptom severity and duration, level of function, therapy expectations) showed a correlation of r = .57 between predicted and actual therapy courses, with some patients making better predictions than for other. The inclusion of the initial course led to a further improvement in the prediction. Against the background of this approach and using the concept of clinically significant change , it was examined to what extent feedback to therapists and / or patients about the course of therapy leads to an improvement in the therapy result.

Process Outcome Research: How Psychotherapy Works

According to Grawe, when examining the effectiveness of psychotherapy, either an experimental or a correlative approach can be used p. 151 .

  • In the experimental procedure, the theoretically assumed effect parameter is varied experimentally and the respective effects are analyzed (e.g. experimental studies on the treatment of anxiety disorders, which led to Bandura's theory of the expectation of self-efficacy ).
  • The verification of variables that cannot be manipulated experimentally (quality of the therapy relationship, willingness of the patient to accept, etc.) usually takes place via the correlation of characteristics of the therapy process with the success of the therapy. There are z. For example, there are clear indications that the quality of the therapy relationship plays an important role for the therapeutic outcome in all forms of therapy p. 150 .

The first “real” process outcome studies date from the early 1950s. The prerequisite was the establishment of systematic results research and objective methods of process research. The emergence of electronic devices for audio recordings from the 1930s played a role here (later also video), with the help of which therapy conversations could be recorded and objectively analyzed. Another important means of process research was the development of rating scales and questionnaires for the objective recording of the subjective experiences of patients and therapists.

An overview of factors that influence the success of therapy delivers (since 1986 revised several times) Generic Model of Psychotherapy (dt. "General model of psychotherapy ") of David Orlinsky and Kenneth I. Howard This model is by Grawe a "milestone in the development of psychotherapeutic Process research ”and makes it clear that“ one has to imagine the mode of action of psychotherapy in the form of a pattern of several influencing factors that functionally interact with one another on the therapy result ”. Pp. 152-153 . The problematic assumptions of linear relationships between individual influencing factors and the therapy result as well as the representativeness of short therapy sections for the entire therapeutic process were countered by the development of micro- and macro-analytical process models.

Asay and Lambert (2001), when evaluating empirical results, came to the conclusion that the variance in the therapeutic change increased

  • 40% through client variables and extra therapeutic factors,
  • 30% through the therapeutic relationship,
  • 15% due to the form of therapy and
  • 15% is explained by expectation and placebo effects.

Client variables

The patient's personality has an impact on the effectiveness of psychotherapy. For example, increased neuroticism , which is a risk factor for many mental illnesses, is associated with a lower effectiveness of psychotherapy. This means that patient groups who are more frequently affected by illnesses benefit less from psychotherapy.

Health economic aspects

Against the background of rising health care costs, there has been increasing demand since the 1980s to examine cost-benefit aspects in addition to the effectiveness of psychotherapy. In 2001, Baltensperger and Grawe published a secondary analysis of 124 cost-benefit studies on psychotherapy, which showed that (in the mentally ill) “psychotherapy is not only more effective, but also less expensive than routine medical treatment measures”. A meta-analysis by Chiles, Lambert and Hatch also showed a “cost-offset effect” of psychotherapy in 90% of the 97 studies included. H. a cost saving (through a reduction in the use of organic medical examinations or treatments) as a result of psychotherapy.

further results

In an evaluation study by the Universities of Mannheim and Trier, which was carried out on behalf of the Techniker Krankenkasse, a strong effect ( Cohen's d = 1) of psychotherapy could be demonstrated.

trouble

This article or the following section is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.

Difficulties in efficacy studies on psychotherapy, especially in comparative therapy research, arise from the fact that the different therapeutic schools sometimes postulate very different criteria for therapeutic success and assume very different therapeutic mechanisms of action. To make matters worse, both therapeutic factors and criteria for success are different and sometimes not operationalized at all and are therefore only accessible to empirical research to a very limited extent. This is why some of the results of the meta-analyzes mentioned are discussed - sometimes passionately.

reception

Based on the work of other authors, an analysis came to the conclusion that practicing psychotherapists are hardly interested in the results of psychotherapy research. There were three reasons for this. First, the literature on psychotherapy research does not provide the clearest possible instruction. No clear instructions for action would be derived from impact factors, but rather they remain unclear in their application and have to be interpreted. This would make them relative. Second, one does not learn anything about the background events with which the terms used in a research paper get their specific meaning, e.g. B. the practical training of raters in the run-up to a study, through which different interpretations are reduced. Third, the articles are getting shorter and more sober. You would lose clarity and not inspire.

Others

In 1970 the psychotherapy researchers Kenneth I. Howard and David Orlinsky (with the participation of Hans Hermann Strupp ) founded the Society for Psychotherapy Research .

The most important results of psychotherapy research are regularly summarized in the Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change , which has been published since 1971 . The standard work originally published by Allen E. Bergin and Sol L. Garfield (since the 5th edition by Michael J. Lambert ) is also referred to as the "Bible" of psychotherapy research. P. 132

In 1991, the Society for Psychotherapy Research founded the journal Psychotherapy Research , which can be seen as “another trademark in psychotherapy research” p. 133 .

Psychotherapy research in German-speaking countries

Psychotherapy research is usually carried out at university institutes or facilities close to universities, mostly at psychological institutes (in the field of clinical psychology ) or facilities of a medical faculty (mostly in the field of psychosomatic medicine ). Often there is cooperation with (possibly affiliated) psychotherapeutic outpatient clinics (including training clinics ), advice centers or psychosomatic clinics .

In Germany, psychotherapy research is carried out at the University of Trier (European Center for Psychotherapy and Psychotherapy Research ), the University of Heidelberg (including the Research Center for Psychotherapy at the Center for Psychosocial Medicine) and the University of Ulm (psychosomatic medicine and psychotherapy). B. at the University of Salzburg (Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy and Health Psychology) or the Sigmund Freud University of Vienna (which also offers its own course in psychotherapy science), and in Switzerland z. B. at the University of Bern (Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy).

See also

literature

As an introduction, reference is made to the works by Gelo et al. and Lambert referenced.

  • Franz Caspar, Frank Jacobi: Psychotherapy research. In: W. Hiller, E. Leibing, F. Leichsenring, S. Sulz (Ed.): Textbook of Psychotherapy. Volume 1: Scientific foundations of psychotherapy . 4th edition. CIP-Medien, 2007, pp. 395-410.
  • Louis G. Castonguay, JC Muran, Lynne E. Angus: Bringing Psychotherapy Research to Life: Understanding Change Through the Work of Leading Clinical Researchers. American Psychological Association, Washington 2010.
  • Markus Fäh, Gottfried Fischer (ed.): Sense and nonsense in psychotherapy research. A critical examination of statements and research methods. Psychosozial-Verlag, Giessen 1998, ISBN 3-932133-29-3 .
  • Peter Fonagy , Anthony Roth: What Works For Whom? A Critical Review of Psychotherapy Research. 2nd Edition. Guilford Press, New York NY et al. 2005, ISBN 1-57230-650-5 .
  • Omar Gelo, Alfred Pritz, Bernd Rieken: "Psychotherapy Research - Foundations, Process and Outcome." Springer-Verlag, Vienna 2015, ISBN 978-3-7091-1381-3 .
  • Klaus Grawe: Psychotherapy research at the beginning of the nineties. In: Psychological Rundschau . 43, 1992, pp. 132-162. (abstract)
  • Klaus Grawe, Ruth Donati, Friederike Bernauer: Psychotherapy in Transition. From confession to profession. 5th unchanged edition. Hogrefe, Göttingen et al. 2001, ISBN 3-8017-0481-5 (most comprehensive meta-analysis to date).
  • Hans Kordy: Does Psychotherapy Research Answer the Questions of Practitioners, and Should It? In: Psychotherapy Research. 5 (2), 1995, pp. 128-130, doi : 10.1080 / 10503309512331331246
  • Joachim Kosfelder, Johannes Michala, Silja Vocks, Ulricke Willutzki (eds.): Advances in psychotherapy research. Hogrefe, Göttingen et al. 2005, ISBN 3-8017-1841-7 .
  • Michael J. Lambert (Eds.) "Bergin & Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavioral Modification." dgvt-Verlag, Tübingen 2013 ISBN 978-3-87159-280-5 (translation of the 5th edition)
  • Michael J. Lambert (Eds.): Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 6th edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York NY 2013, ISBN 978-1-118-03820-8 (standard work).
  • Lester Luborsky: The Same and Divergent Views of "Fashions and Preoccupations in Psychotherapy Research". In: Psychotherapy Research. 5 (2), 1995, pp. 118-120, doi : 10.1080 / 10503309512331331216
  • Anthony Ryle: Fashions and Preoccupations in Psychotherapy Research. In: Psychotherapy Research. 5 (2), 1995, pp. 113-117, doi : 10.1080 / 10503309512331331206 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Philip C. Kendall, Grayson Holmbeck, Timothy Verduin: Methodology, Design, and Evaluation in Psychotherapy Research. In: Michael J. Lambert (Eds.): Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 5th edition. Wiley, New York 2004, pp. 16-43.
  2. ↑ Caspar, Jacobi, 2007.
  3. ↑ a b Kenneth I. Howard, Karla Moras, Peter L. Brill, Zoran Martinovich, Wolfgang Lutz: Evaluation of psychotherapy: Efficacy, effectiveness, and patient progress. In: American Psychologist . 51 (10), 1996, pp. 1059-1064, doi : 10.1037 / 0003-066X.51.10.1059 .
  4. ^ Clara E. Hill, Michael J. Lambert: Methodological Issues in Studying Psychotherapy Processes and Outcomes. In: Michael J. Lambert (Eds.): Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 5th edition. Wiley, New York 2004, pp. 84-135.
  5. ↑ a b c d David E. Orlinsky, Michael Helge Ronnestad, Ulrike Willutzki: Fifty Years of Psychotherapy Process-Outcome Research: Continuity and Change. In: Michael J. Lambert (Eds.): Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 5th edition. Wiley, New York 2004, pp. 307-389.
  6. ↑ Arjan Berkeljon, Scott A. Baldwin: An introduction to meta-analysis for psychotherapy outcome research. In: Psychotherapy Research. 2009, 19 (4-5), pp. 511-518.
  7. ^ A b Claudia Baltensperger, Klaus Grawe: Psychotherapy under health economic aspects. In: Journal for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. 30 (1), pp. 10-21.
  8. ^ A b Adolf-Ernst Meyer: A taxonomy of previous psychotherapy research. In: Journal of Clinical Psychology. 19 (4), 1990, pp. 287-291.
  9. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Klaus Grawe: Psychotherapy research at the beginning of the nineties. In: Psychological Rundschau. 43, 1992, pp. 132-162.
  10. ^ Klaus Grawe: Research-Informed Psychotherapy. In: Psychotherapy Research. 7 (1), 1997, pp. 1-19.
  11. ^ Irene Elkin: The NIMH Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program: Where we began and where we are. In: Allen E. Bergin, Sol L. Garfield: Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change. 4th edition 1994, pp. 114-139.
  12. ^ Hans Jürgen Eysenck: The Effects of Psychotherapy: An Evaluation. In: Journal of Consulting Psychology. 16, 1952, pp. 319-324.
  13. ^ A b Donald J. Kiesler: Some myths of psychotherapy research and the search for a paradigm. In: Psychological Bulletin , Vol 65 (2), Feb 1966, pp 110-136.
  14. ^ Allen E. Bergin: The Evaluation of Therapeutic Outcomes. In AE Bergin, SL Garfield (Ed.): Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. Wiley, New York, pp. 217-270.
  15. ↑ Cheryl L. McNeilly, Kenneth I. Howard: The Effects of Psychotherapy: A Reevaluation Based on Dosage. In: Psychotherapy Research. 1 (1), 1991, pp. 74-78.
  16. ↑ Michael J. Lambert, Benjamin M. Ogles: The Efficacy and Effectiveness of Psychotherapy. In: Michael J. Lambert (Eds.): Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 5th edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York NY, 2004.
  17. ↑ Mark W. Lipsey, David B. Wilson: The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment: Confirmation from meta-analysis. American Psychologist 48 (12), 1993, pp. 1181-1209, doi : 10.1037 / 0003-066X.48.12.1181 .
  18. ^ Lester Luborsky, Barton Singer, Lise Luborsky: Comparative Studies of Psychotherapies: Is it true that "everyone has won and all must have prices"? In: Archives of General Psychiatry . 1975, 32 (8), pp. 995-1008.
  19. ^ Saul Rosenzweig: Some implicit common factors in diverse methods of psychotherapy. In: American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 6, 1936, pp. 412-415. (abstract)
  20. ^ Mary Lee Smith, Gene V. Glass: Meta-Analysis of Psychotherapy Outcome Studies. In: American Psychologist. Sept. 1977, pp. 752-760.
  21. ^ Klaus Grawe: From psychotherapeutic outcome research to differential process analysis. In: Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1989, 18 (1), pp. 23-34 (citation p. 32).
  22. ↑ K. Grawe, F. Bernauer, R. Donati: Psychotherapies in comparison: Did everyone really deserve a prize? Journal for Psychotherapy, Psychosomatics and Medical Psychology, 40, 1990, pp. 102-114.
  23. ^ A b Klaus Grawe, Ruth Donati, Friederike Bernauer: Psychotherapy in Transition. From confession to profession. Hogrefe, Göttingen 1994, ISBN 3-8017-0481-5 .
  24. ↑ Wolfgang Mertens: Psychoanalysis on the test bench? A reply to the meta-analysis by Klaus Grawe. Berlin, Munich: Quintessence, 1994.
  25. ^ Bernhard Rüger: Critical remarks on the statistical methods in Grawe, Donati and Bernauer: «Psychotherapy in change. From confession to profession". In: Journal for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychoanalysis. 40 (4), 1994, pp. 368-383. PMID 7817634 .
  26. ^ Klaus Grawe: Psychotherapy and statistics in the field of tension between science and denomination. A comment on the debate about our book “Psychotherapy in the transition from denomination to profession”. In: Journal of Clinical Psychology. 24 (3), 1995, pp. 216-228.
  27. ↑ Section Clinical Psychology of the German Society for Psychology: Statement of the Section Clinical Psychology of the German Society for Psychology on the discussion about research results on psychotherapy. In: Journal of Clinical Psychology. 24 (3), 1995, p. 229.
  28. ↑ Bernhard Rüger: A reply to Grawe's article "Psychotherapy and statistics in the field of tension between science and denomination". In: Journal of Clinical Psychology. 25 (1), 1996, pp. 61-63.
  29. ↑ Klaus Grawe: Closing words to an unpleasant controversy. In: Journal of Clinical Psychology. 25 (1), 1996, pp. 64-66.
  30. ↑ Dry out the swamp. The analyst Wolfgang Mertens and the analysis critic Klaus Grawe on the value of therapies. In: Der Spiegel . 14/1995, pp. 132-139. (accessed on January 7, 2012)
  31. ↑ The Empire Strikes Back. In: Focus . Magazin 39/1994 (accessed January 7, 2012)
  32. ↑ Volker Tschuschke, Eva Bänninger-Huber, Hermann Faller, Erdmuthe Fikentscher, Gottfried Fischer, Inge Frohburg, Willi Hager, Angelina Schiffler, Friedhelm Lamprecht, Falk Leichsenring, Marianne Leuzinger-Bohleber, Gerd Rudolph, Horst Kächele: Psychotherapy research - how to do it ( not) should do. An expert reanalysis of comparative studies by Grawe et al. (1994). In: Psychotherapie Psychosomatik Medical Psychology . Vol 48 (11), 1998, pp. 430-444. (abstract)
  33. ^ Klaus Grawe: From diagnosis to group therapy. A professional opinion on Tschuschke among others: Psychotherapy research - how one should (not) do it. In: Psychotherapie Psychosomatik Medical Psychology. Vol 48 (11), 1998, pp. 445-448.
  34. ↑ Volker Tschuschke , Claudia Heckrath, Wolfgang Tress: Between confusion and waste. On the value of the Bern psychotherapy study by Grawe, Donati and Bernauer. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1998, ISBN 3-525-45801-0 .
  35. ↑ Falk Leichsenring: On the meta-analysis of Grawe. In: Group Psychotherapy and Group Dynamics. 32, 1996, ISSN  0017-4947 , pp. 205-234.
  36. ↑ Heckrath, C. & Dohmen, P. (1997). On the empirical basis of the 'highly significant superiority' of cognitive-behavioral over psychoanalytic therapy methods. Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychoanalysis, 43, 2, 179-201
  37. ↑ K. Grawe, F. Caspar, H. Ambühl: The Berner therapy comparison study: Effect comparison and differential indication. In: Journal of Clinical Psychology. 19, 1990, pp. 338-361.
  38. ↑ Pim Cuijpers, Annemieke van Straten, Gerhard Andersson, Patricia van Oppen: Psychotherapy for depression in adults: A meta-analysis of comparative outcome studies. In: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology . tape 76 , no. 6 , p. 909-922 , doi : 10.1037 / a0013075 ( apa.org [accessed November 28, 2017]).
  39. ↑ Michelle L. Van Etten, Steven Taylor: Comparative efficacy of treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis . In: Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy . tape 5 , no. 3 , September 1, 1998, ISSN  1099-0879 , p. 126-144 , doi : 10.1002 / (SICI) 1099-0879 (199809) 5: 33.0.CO; 2-H ( wiley.com [accessed January 11, 2018]).
  40. ↑ Ioana A. Cristea, Claudio Gentili, Carmen D. Cotet, Daniela Palomba, Corrado Barbui: Efficacy of Psychotherapies for Borderline Personality Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis . In: JAMA Psychiatry . tape 74 , no. 4 , April 1, 2017, ISSN  2168-622X , p. 319–328 , doi : 10.1001 / jamapsychiatry.2016.4287 ( jamanetwork.com [accessed March 24, 2018]).
  41. ↑ Kenneth I. Howard, S. Mark Kopta, MS Krause, David E. Orlinsky: The dose-response relationship in psychotherapy. In: American Psychologist. 1986, 41, pp. 159-164.
  42. ↑ Kenneth I. Howard, Robert J. Lueger, Michael S. Maling, Zoran Martinovic: A Phase Model of Psychotherapy Outcome: Causal Mediation of Change. In: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology . 1993, 61 (4), pp. 678-685.
  43. ↑ Robert J. Lueger: A phase model of change in psychotherapy. In: Psychotherapist. 1995, 40, pp. 267-278.
  44. ^ Scott C. Leon, S. Mark Kopta, Kenneth I. Howard, Wolfgang Lutz: Predicting patients' responses to psychotherapy: Are some more predictable than others? In: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 67 (5), 1999, pp. 698-704, doi : 10.1037 / 0022-006X.67.5.698 .
  45. ↑ Wolfgang Lutz, Zoran Martinovich, Kenneth I. Howard: Prediction of individual psychotherapy courses. In: Journal for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. 30 (2), 2001, pp. 104-113, doi : 10.1026 // 1616-3443.30.2.104
  46. ^ Neil S. Jacobson, Paula Truax: Clinical Significance: A Statistical Approach to Defining Meaningful Change in Psychotherapy Research. In: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1991, 59 (1), pp. 12-19.
  47. ↑ Michael J. Lambert, Nathan B. Hansen, Arthur E. Finch: Patient-focused research: Using patient outcome data to enhance treatment effects. In: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Vol 69 (2), Apr 2001, pp. 159-172, doi : 10.1037 // 0022-006X.69.2.159
  48. ^ Albert Bandura: Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. In: Psychological Review. 1977, 84 (2), pp. 191-215.
  49. ^ David Orlinsky, Kenneth Howard: Process and Outcome in Psychotherapy . In: SL Garfield, AE Bergin (Ed.): Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 3. Edition. Wiley, New York 1986, pp. 311-384.
  50. ↑ David E. Orlinsky, Kenneth I. Howard: A generic model of psychotherapy. In: Journal of Integrative & Eclectic Psychotherapy. 6 (1), 1987, pp. 6-27 [1]
  51. ^ David E. Orlinsky, Klaus Grawe, Barbara K. Parks: Process and outcome in psychotherapy: Once again. In: Allen E. Bergin, Sol L. Garfield: Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change. 4th edition. 1994, pp. 270-376.
  52. ↑ T. Asay, M. Lambert: Empirical arguments for the factors common to all therapies: Quantitative results . In: M. Hubble, B. Duncan, S. Miller (eds.): This is how psychotherapy works. Empirical results and practical conclusions . Verlag modern life, Dortmund 2001, p. 41-81 .
  53. ↑ BF Jeronimus, R. Kotov, H. Riese, J. Ormel: Neuroticism's prospective association with mental disorders halves after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history, but the adjusted association hardly decays with time: a meta-analysis on 59 longitudinal / prospective studies with 443 313 participants . In: Psychological Medicine . tape 46 , no. October 14 , 2016, ISSN  0033-2917 , p. 2883–2906 , doi : 10.1017 / S0033291716001653 ( cambridge.org [accessed May 14, 2019]).
  54. ↑ Personality: Who will benefit most from psychotherapy? Retrieved May 14, 2019 .
  55. ↑ Gehrhard Bühringer, Kurt Hahlweg: Cost-benefit aspects of psychological treatment. In: Psychological Rundschau. 37, 1986, pp. 1-19.
  56. ↑ Jeremy A. Chiles, Michael J. Lambert, Arlin L. Hatch: The impact of psychological interventions on medical cost offset: A meta-analytic review. In: Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 6 (2), pp. 204-220.
  57. ↑ Wittmann, WW, Lutz, W., Steffanowski, A., Kriz, D., Glahn, EM, Völkle, MC, Böhnke, JR, Köck, K., Bittermann, A. & Ruprecht, T .: Quality monitoring in the outpatient psychotherapy: model project of the Techniker Krankenkasse - final report. Techniker Krankenkasse, Hamburg 2011, chap. 9 , p. 160-164 . ( PDF , accessed September 18, 2011)
  58. ↑ Thorsten Padberg: Why do psychotherapists not read research literature? In: Psychotherapist Journal . tape 1 . Vogel Druck und Medienservice, March 22, 2012, ISSN  1611-0773 , p. 10-17 .
  59. ↑ Kenneth Howard obituary
  60. ^ Obituary by Hans Strupp (accessed on August 18, 2011)
  61. ^ Hans Reinecker: Therapy research. In: J. Margraf: Textbook of behavior therapy. Volume 2, Springer, Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 3-540-66439-4 , p. 50.
  62. ↑ EZPP at the University of Trier
  63. ↑ Ulm University - Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy ( Memento of the original from January 15, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.uniklinik-ulm.de
  64. ^ Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy and Health Psychology at the University of Salzburg
  65. ^ Research at the SFU
  66. ↑ Psychotherapy Science at SFU
  67. ^ Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy at the University of Bern