Ulfberht

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Ulfberht lettering on a sword from the 9th century in the Germanic National Museum

Ulfberht is a modern transcription of the inscription + VLFBERH + T , which is typically on early medieval , Germanic swords can be found of the 8th to the 11th century. There are many variations of the inscription, such as + VLFBERHT + or VLFBERH + T. It is generally assumed that it was originally a Franconian person whose name and workshop later established a kind of trademark .

Historical classification and archaeological significance

A digital reproduction of an Ulfberht sword

Most swords are classified as type X according to the Oakeshott classification, whereby the transition to high medieval sword forms is rather fluid. Almost all handle designs typical of the time can also be found based on the Petersen vessel typology. According to Alfred Geibig's classification of swords, there is also no uniformity. It is believed that this inscription was used for several centuries, and not just by a single workshop or person. The type of inscription (the presence of cross symbols before and after the actual letters) also allows conclusions to be drawn about the origin and meaning of such markings.

The fact that most of the swords with the inscription "Ulfberht" were found in Scandinavia shows that there was a strong trade relationship between the Franconian Empire and Northern Europe . There are finds from Eastern Europe and even from the Middle East , which were often provided with vessels ( crossguard , handle and pommel) that corresponded to local customs. The vast majority of blades, however, come from the Rhine Franconian area , which already had a pronounced metallurgy in the Latène period .

origin

The exact origin is currently unclear. Some researchers suspect that the steel came from Afghanistan , Persia or India . It is said to have reached Europe via traders from the Orient via the Volga and the Caspian Sea . Material analyzes, in turn, indicate that the lead comes from the Rhenish Slate Mountains . Therefore some researchers suspect the monasteries Fulda and Lorsch as places of manufacture. There are indications of this after a find from 2012. A very well-preserved Ulfbehre sword was found during excavation work in the Weser near Hessisch Oldendorf . After a detailed analysis, the State Office for Monument Preservation and the University of Hanover came to the conclusion that the sword was forged in the 10th century and the lead used in the handle comes from the Hintertaunus. This was therefore taken as an indication of a workshop in Fulda or Lorsch, because weapons production is guaranteed there and other monasteries presumably fetched the lead from nearby storage sites. Since only one of the remaining 170 swords found bears a resemblance to the one from Hessisch Oldendorf, researchers suspect that it is a late example that only used the "brand name".

Metallographic research

The results of modern metallographic research show that the early medieval Franconian- Alemannic swords were top-quality products in their time, which were manufactured at the highest level of craftsmanship. The work of sword researcher Stefan Mäder shows that the damascene swords of the early Middle Ages often had a highly complex structure and were selectively hardened. In addition, the research results of Alan Williams have shown that the "Ulfberht" specimens are made of steel , which is also of good quality by today's standards. These results coincide with the metallographic data of the sword from the Essen cathedral treasury , which consists of sample welded steel with very low sulfur and phosphorus content and a peak value of 1.1% carbon .

The structure of the early medieval blades was highly variable: there were simple carburized iron swords and complex composite blades . In damascene swords, the cutting edges were often welded separately to the torsion damask body. Late Carolingian swords with the + VLFBERH + T inscription, however, usually had no visible damask structures; During this time, the increasing abandonment of complex damascene due to the improvement of the racing kiln technology began . It can therefore be assumed that the value of the “Ulfberht trademark” resulted from the advanced racing kiln and forging technology at the time. The actual inscription was then welded into the blade body using glowing iron wire or other materials. The above-mentioned characteristics and the metallurgical knowledge of the early medieval blacksmiths made the swords "high-tech weapons" of the time, which led to the appreciation and preference for certain products. In addition to + VLFBERH + T , other inscriptions are known, such as LEUTFRIT , BANTO , UGTHRED or INGELRII (also INGELRED ).

controversy

Williams interpreted the measured carbon content of about 1.0% as an indication of the use of crucible steel . In contrast, this carbon content could also be detected in the ceremonial sword of the Essen cathedral treasure , which consists of local fermentation steel . The even distribution of carbon in European steel (unlike the carburization of iron, where only the surface of the material becomes carbon-rich) has been proven by sword researcher Stefan Mäder, among others. According to J. D. Verhoeven, carbide formers such as vanadium and molybdenum in significantly increased amounts of up to 0.3% are typical for special Indian iron ores , which were also found in original Wootz blades. This proof remains with European blades until today.

It is also claimed that the cutting edges and the core of the "Ulfberht" swords consist of steel, while conventional swords have an iron core and steel cutting edges. The latter does not apply, since in Europe already in the course of the 10th century damascene was increasingly abandoned and blades were only made of refined steel , with both all-steel swords and composite blades being proven. High-quality steel had also been available in large quantities since the 11th century, due to the improvement in racing furnace technology .

To date, there is no reliable evidence for the use of crucible steel in European weapons. As has been confirmed by recent research results, the small amounts of slag and so-called "steel pests" (e.g. sulfur and phosphorus) as well as the high carbon content and its even distribution could also be achieved with the racing furnace technology available in the period in question.

Suspected counterfeits in the Middle Ages

Between the 9th and 11th centuries, the number of Ulfberht blades with spelling mistakes increased significantly. Historians suspect counterfeit products. The reason for this is said to have been an imperial decree of Charlemagne . On Christmas Eve of the year 805, this forbade the use of swords from the Frankish Empire . He wanted to prevent Ulfberht swords from reaching his opponents, the Slavs and Vikings . They valued the special nature and quality of the swords very much and asked about them. Nor did they shy away from violence to get their swords. This demand could have led to forgeries.

Media reception

  • The Germans Second Season - Part 1: Charlemagne and the Saxons.
  • High-tech of the Middle Ages episode Das Vikingerschwert (USA, 2012), German broadcast ARTE April 2016.

See also

literature

  • Herbert Henery Coghlan: Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World , Pitt Rivers Museum 1977.
  • Alfred Geibig: Contributions to the morphological development of the sword in the Middle Ages. An analysis of the finds from the late 8th to the 12th century from collections of the Federal Republic of Germany. Dissertation, Neumünster 1991.
  • Friedrich E. Grünzweig: The sword among the Germanic peoples. Cultural-historical studies on its nature from antiquity to the high Middle Ages (= Philologica Germanica . 30). Fassbaender, Vienna 2009, ISBN 978-3-902575-18-0 .
  • Ewart Oakeshott : The Sword in the Age of Chivalry. 1994, ISBN 0-85115-362-3 .
  • Alan R. Williams, Methods of Manufacture of Swords in Medieval Europe: Illustrated by the Metallography of Some Examples. In: Gladius. 13, 1977, pp. 75-101.
  • M. Müller-Wille: A new ULFBERHT sword from Hamburg. Distribution, form knowledge and origin. In: Offa. 27, 1970, pp. 65-91.
  • Ian Peirce, Ewart Oakeshott: Swords of the Viking Age. The Boydell Press, 2002, ISBN 0-85115-914-1 .

Web links

Commons : Ulfberht swords  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Anne Stalsberg: The Vlfberht sword blades reevaluated. ( Memento of the original from November 6, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 592 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / jenny-rita.org
  2. ↑ Anne Stalsberg: The Vlfberht sword blades reevaluated. ( Memento of the original from November 6, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 592 kB), p. 8. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / jenny-rita.org
  3. ^ The Sword Typology of Alfred Geibig
  4. ↑ Geibig, Alfred: Contributions to the morphological development of the sword in the Middle Ages. An analysis of the finds from the end of the 8th to the 12th century from collections of the Federal Republic of Germany. © 1991 Karl Wachholtz Verlag, ISBN 3-529-01171-1 .
  5. ^ A b Anne Stalsberg: The Vlfberht sword blades reevaluated. ( Memento of the original from November 6, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 592 kB), p. 20. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / jenny-rita.org
  6. ↑ Julia Köppe: Robbery, extortion, forgery: How the Vikings came to the high-tech weapons of the Middle Ages . In: Spiegel Online . April 2, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed April 2, 2019]).
  7. ↑ Angelika Franz: Brand piracy in the Middle Ages: Vikings fell for cheap sword copies . In: Spiegel Online . February 16, 2009 ( spiegel.de [accessed April 2, 2019]).
  8. ↑ Julia Köppe: Robbery, extortion, forgery: How the Vikings came to the high-tech weapons of the Middle Ages . In: Spiegel Online . April 2, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed April 2, 2019]).
  9. ↑ Florian Stark: The Franconian miracle weapon was created in the monastery , Die Welt from July 31, 2014 [1] accessed on August 30, 2019
  10. ↑ Steels, stones and snakes. On the cultural and technical history of sword blades in the early Middle Ages. (PDF; 31.5 MB)
  11. ↑ Mado wo akeru - Open a window.
  12. ^ David Edge, Alan Williams: Some early medieval swords in the Wallace Collection and elsewhere.
  13. ^ Alfred Pothmann (ed.): The ceremonial sword of the Essen cathedral treasury. Aschendorff, Münster 1995, ISBN 3-402-06243-7 .
  14. ↑ Blade hardness and structure.
  15. ^ Herbert Westphal: For the development of medieval weapons. (PDF; 10.4 MB, p. 53.)
  16. ↑ The Key Role of Impurities in Ancient Damascus Steel Blades. In: tms.org. Retrieved March 28, 2016 .
  17. ^ AN Kirpitschnikow, LT Bergman, I. Jansson: A New Analysis of Viking Age Swords from the Collection of the Statens Historiska Museer . In: Russian History / Histoire Russe . Stockholm 2001.
  18. ↑ Julia Köppe: Robbery, extortion, forgery: How the Vikings came to the high-tech weapons of the Middle Ages . In: Spiegel Online . April 2, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed April 2, 2019]).