Cedar Revolution

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Demonstrations at the funeral of Pierre Gemayel junior

Cedar Revolution ( Arabic ثورة الأرز, DMG Ṯawrat al-Arz , French Révolution du Cèdre ) is the name for the chain of demonstrations by bourgeois groups in Lebanon (mainly in Beirut ), which resulted from a fatal attack on the vehicle convoy of the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri on 14. February 2005.

The primary goals of the original activists were to withdraw Syrian troops from Lebanon, set up an international commission to investigate the assassination of Prime Minister Hariri, resign security officials and organize free parliamentary elections . The demonstrators demanded the end of Syrian influence on Lebanese politics. During the period of the first wave of demonstrations, Syria had a force of approximately 14,000 soldiers and secret agents in Lebanon. Following the demonstrations, Syrian troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on April 27, 2005. The pro-Syrian government underOmar Karami was dissolved and the main goal of the revolution was achieved. The series of attacks did not end in the course of the year, however, and other anti-Syrian politicians and journalists fell victim to it.

The opposition had chosen a white and red scarf and the blue ribbon of the Pro-Hariri movement as their symbol. Popular mottos of the movement were Horriyeh, Siyadeh, Istiqlal ("freedom, sovereignty, independence") and Haqiqa, Horriyeh, Wahdeh wataniyeh ("truth, freedom, national unity").

target

The main goal of the Cedar Revolution was to end the Syrian military occupation of Lebanon that had lasted since 1975. In addition, many Lebanese have called for the return of former Prime Minister Michel Aoun , who had been in exile since 1989, and for the imprisoned chairman of the Forces Libanaises , Samir Geagea , to be released as the target of the revolution.

Other goals that are sometimes stated to be achieved are:

  • Unite all Lebanese in their struggle for freedom and independence
  • Elimination of the pro-Syrian Karamis regime
  • Dismissal of the six Lebanese security commanders including the attorney general
  • Implementation of the complete withdrawal of the Syrian troops and their security services from Lebanon
  • Uncovering the murderers of Prime Minister Rafik Hariri
  • Carrying out free and democratic parliamentary elections in spring 2005 regardless of Syrian influence

Origin of the name

The name " Cedar Revolution " is a term coined by US Undersecretary for Global Affairs Paula J. Dobriansky in a press conference and used to compare it to the Rose Revolution in Georgia , the Orange Revolution in Ukraine and the " Purple Revolution “(As described by George W. Bush ) to move in Iraq . It is also known as the Intifada-Al-Istiqlal of Lebanon or the Cedar Spring ( Rabi 'el Arz ), referring to the time of year when the protests first broke out and also as an allusion to famous freedom and independence movements such as the Prague Spring . This is followed by the names used by the local media, such as LBC and Future TV , to denote the events: Independence of Lebanon (Istiqlal Lubnan) or Lebanon Spring (Rabi 'Lubnan) or just independence 05 . Sometimes Arab Spring is also used. The cedar refers to the national landmark , the Lebanon cedar , the tree depicted on the flag of Lebanon . Centuries ago, periods of deforestation, especially in the Taurus Mountains , Lebanon was a heavily forested country , especially with Lebanon cedars .

Assassination of Rafik Hariri

On February 14, 2005, the popular former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri was murdered in a car bomb attack, killing 21 people and wounding nearly 100 others. Former Minister of Economy and Trade Bassel Fleihan later died of injuries sustained in the explosion. The attack sparked mass demonstrations that apparently united large parts of the normally fragmented Lebanese population. It was the second event in four months; the former minister and member of parliament Marwan Hamadéh survived a car bomb attack on October 1, 2004.

Despite the lack of any basic convincing evidence to accuse any party or individual, Lebanese and international outrage over the murder has mainly been directed against the Syrian government. The reasons for this were her extensive military and intelligence influence in Lebanon and the general rift between Hariri and Damascus shortly before his last resignation on October 20, 2004. The day after Hariri resigned, former pro-Syrian prime minister Omar Karami was appointed to the post .

Lebanese Druze leader Walid Jumblat , a new supporter of the anti-Syrian opposition, emboldened by public anger and civic activity, claimed immediately after Hariri's murder that Syrian President Bashar al-Assad threatened Hariri in August 2004 by saying, “Lahoud am I ... If you and Chirac want me out of Lebanon, I'll break Lebanon. ”Jumblat is quoted as saying,“ When I heard him say those words, I knew it was his death sentence. ”The United States, the The EU and UN have not gone so far as to openly blame Syria, but instead called for Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon and a public and international investigation into the killing. Jumblat's remarks are not without controversy; the BBC describes it as "viewed by many as the political weather vane of the country" - the constantly changing loyalty to the current winning side, due to the tumult of the civil war from 1975 to 1990 and the problematic post-war situation. He was a supporter of Syria after the war but switched sides after the death of former Syrian President Hafiz al-Assad in 2000. His testimony is quoted, but not confirmed, in the UN FitzGerald report . The report stops short of directly blaming Damascus or any other side, but says that only another full international investigation can identify the culprit. The Lebanese government, while agreeing to this investigation, demanded the full participation of its own organs and respect for Lebanese sovereignty . (see also below, International Response)

On February 21, 2005, tens of thousands of Lebanese protesters held a rally at the site of Hariri's murder, calling for an end to the Syrian occupation. They accused Syria and pro-Syrian President Émile Lahoud of being responsible for the murder. In the weeks that followed, there was a demonstration at Martyrs Square (also called Freedom Square by the demonstrators ) almost every Monday , in addition to the permanent daily gathering there.

Similar demonstrations were also held by Lebanese immigrants in some cities around the world, including Sydney (where over 10,000 people demonstrated), San Francisco , Paris , Dusseldorf , Montreal and London . It is believed that Syria's break with Hariri was caused by his opposition to the controversial Syrian-backed constitutional amendment that extended Lahoud's tenure as president.

Time series

Protesters gather at Place des Martyrs

Numerous assassinations and explosions mark the course of the unrest in the spring of 2005. On March 19, 2005, around midnight, an explosion shook an area in the suburb of Jdeidéh north of Beirut, injuring eleven people. Just four days later, in the early morning of March 23, 2005, a bomb tore up and killed an unidentified person and two Indian workers in a shopping center in Kaslik, near the port of Jounieh , about 15 km north of Beirut. A Lebanese was seriously injured. The bomb collapsed the roof of the mall and shattered shop windows. The area was considered the heartland of the Christian, anti-Syrian opposition. President Émile Lahoud ordered an investigation. For its part, it was stated that the attack was attempted to drive Lebanon "into chaos and fear" and renewed the call for discussions between opposition and loyal government politicians "as a means to break the current deadlock and bridge all differences." Opposition, however, blamed supporters of Syria for the new violence. In the opinion of the opposition forces, they had intended to stir up unrest and thus justify the presence of the Syrian troops in Lebanon. "It is clear that those who carried out this attack are aimed at the security and stability of the country," said opposition MP Faris Bouez to reporters on the ground. On the night of Sunday March 27, 2005, a large bomb exploded in a predominantly Christian suburb of Beirut, causing extensive damage, killing two Indian nationals who worked there and injuring eight other people. The United States and United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the attack, called for an end to the violence and called for improved security measures. The explosion caused panic in Beirut and growing concerns about deteriorated stability. Pro-Syrian terrorist groups were suspected of attempting to counter the withdrawal of Syrian troops by undermining the country's stability, although no specific persons or groups were named as suspects. A group of 70 opposition MPs met on Thursday, March 31, 2005. They demanded neutral monitoring of the elections planned for May 31, 2005. In a resolution they stated that “the authorities are working to sabotage the elections through a dangerous attempt to extend the power of the current parliament.” The opposition criticized the head of state Émile Lahoud , parliamentary speaker Nabih Berri and parliament as those responsible for this situation and demanded that they "fulfill their obligations without delaying tactics." This was in response to the postponement of the official resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karami , which should have taken place on April 5, but was then postponed until at least April 8 . Karami was forced to resign again after being reappointed because he failed to convince members of the opposition to participate in a national unity government. On April 18, 2005, the former Minister for Economy and Trade, Bassel Fleihan, died in Paris from injuries sustained in the February 14 bomb explosion. Fleihan sat next to Hariri during the explosion. He suffered burns from over 95% of his body surface. On May 6, 2005, 22 people were wounded in an attack in Jouniéh. Contrary to initial reports, no one was killed in the explosion. On June 2, 2005, a car bomb in a predominantly Christian neighborhood of Beirut killed Samir Kassir , a prominent anti-Syrian journalist who wrote for the An-Nahar newspaper. Samir Kassir was also one of the founders of the Left Democratic Movement. Late in the evening of June 2, 2005, thousands of Lebanese gathered to pay their respects to Samir Kassir.

Immediate effects

In addition to the car bombs scattered across Lebanon, according to Amnesty International , since the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri on February 14, 2005, ten Syrian workers have been killed and others beaten, shot at, threatened or robbed in Lebanon . Lebanese attackers set fires on tents and other temporary homes of Syrian workers.

Resignation of the government

Protesters burn Émile Lahoud's posters

The daily protests against the Syrian occupation attracted 25,000 people. While most of the anti-Syrian demonstrations in the 1990s were predominantly Christian and suppressed by violence, the new demonstrations were clearly not denominationally influenced and the government did not respond with violence or crackdown.

On February 28, the government of pro-Syrian Prime Minister Omar Karami resigned and called for early elections. Karami said in his announcement: "The government is not keen to be a hurdle to those who wish the good for this country." The tens of thousands at Martyrs' Square cheered the announcement and then sang: "Karami has fallen It's your turn, Lahoud and you, Baschar. "

The opposition members of parliament were not satisfied with Karami's resignation, but pressed for Syria to withdraw completely from Lebanon. Marwan Hamadeh said, "At least I blame this government for incitement, negligence, and mistakes, and more for covering the planning ... if not implementation." On March 23, 2005, Lebanese judge Michel Abu Arraj pleaded for the Lebanese internal investigation into the killing is liable to be recalled due to a busy court schedule.

International reactions

Hariri's assassination sparked increased international pressure on Syria. In a joint statement, US President George W. Bush and French President Jacques Chirac condemned the killing and demanded the full implementation of UN Resolution 1559 , which was passed on September 2, 2004 , which requires the complete withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and disarmament the Hezbollah militia in southern Lebanon .

At times there was irritation about the extent to which Syria was ready to withdraw from Lebanon. Arab League chairman Amr Moussa said Syrian President Assad had promised him a gradual withdrawal over a two-year period, but Syrian Information Minister Mahdi Dakhlallah said Moussa had misunderstood the Syrian leader. Dakhlallah said Syria is only moving its troops to eastern Lebanon. Syria then stated that Resolution 1559 would be fully implemented, within months rather than years.

On March 15, 2005, after information emerged that the Lebanese authorities had hidden evidence of Hariri's murder from the UN-appointed commission of inquiry, columnist Robert Fisk alleged that Hariri's two sons fled Lebanon after being warned that they too were threatened with murder.

UN Secretary General Kofi Annan sat in response to a request by the UN Security Council a formed of Irish, Egyptian and Moroccan experts and from the Irish Peter FitzGerald led Commission one to investigate the murder. Even before the FitzGerald report was released, Annan said that another, more extensive investigation may be needed. FitzGerald thanked the Lebanese government for their cooperation before leaving. The report cites the Syrian presence in Lebanon as a factor that contributed to the instability and polarization that preceded the assassination. The report also criticizes the Lebanese government and intelligence services for handling their own investigations into the matter, calling them bogus and inconclusive. In response, the Lebanese government described the report as "unrealistic" and criticized the UN team for not seeking greater government participation in the investigation. The government agreed to another, more complete international investigation, but insisted that any future commission of inquiry must work with the government. At a press conference on March 25, 2005, Lebanese Foreign Minister Mahmoud Hammoud said that the Commission of Inquiry would be expected to "work in cooperation with the state" within a specified framework.

Syrian response

On March 2, 2005, the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad announced that his troops would leave Lebanon completely "in the next few months". Druze leader Walid Jumblat said that he wanted to hear more details from Damascus about the possible withdrawal: "It's a nice gesture, but 'the next few months' is pretty vague - we need a clear roadmap." The closure and relocation of the Syrian The military and intelligence offices and checkpoints in the capital and outside, along with significant troop movements, are pointing towards a full withdrawal, although Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice expressed cautious optimism.

On March 3, 2005, Germany and Russia (Syria's allies during the Cold War ) demanded that Syria consent to the implementation of UN resolution 1559. The then German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder said: "Lebanon should be given an opportunity for sovereignty and development and this can only be achieved by implementing the Security Council resolution, which calls for the immediate Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon."

Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said: "Syria should withdraw from Lebanon, but we must all check that this withdrawal does not violate the very fragile balance that we still have in Lebanon, which is ethnically a very difficult country."

On March 5, Syrian President Assad said in a televised speech that Syria would withdraw its armed forces to the Bekaa plain in eastern Lebanon and then to the border between Syria and Lebanon. He did not give a timetable for a complete withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon.

On the weekend of April 9-10, 2005, the anniversary of the outbreak of the Lebanese civil war , the last Syrian troops left Lebanon, ending their presence in the country after 30 years.

Reactions in the Arab world

The Arab states agreed to the demands for withdrawal. When Assad met in Saudi Arabia for urgent consultations with the then Crown Prince Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz , Assad was told in no uncertain terms that Syria must immediately comply with UN Security Council Resolution 1559. Opposition Lebanese newspaper The Daily Star reported that Assad had offered to remove most of Syria's 15,000-strong force from Lebanon but had insisted on keeping 3,000 soldiers in the country during talks. This has not been independently confirmed.

The annual summit of the Arab League , which in on 23 March 2005 Algeria took place, Syria did not ask to withdraw, which would have given the whole an Arabic inscription, as in the Taif Agreement provided in 1989, and therefore made the deduction more dependent on Resolution 1559. Algeria's Foreign Minister Abdelaziz Belkhadem stated that “we fully agreed to demand the implementation of the Taif Accord on international legitimacy.” Controversially, the crisis in Lebanon was not on the agenda for the summit in which almost half of the Arab leaders did not participate.

Pro-Syrian demonstrations

Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah called for a “massive popular assembly” on March 8th to support Syria and accuse Israel and the United States of meddling in Lebanon's internal affairs. Nasrallah also criticized UN resolution 1559: “The resistance does not give up its weapons ... because Lebanon needs the resistance to defend itself”, adding “all articles of the UN resolution give to the Israeli enemy, the should be held responsible for his crimes, free services and now he finds that he is rewarded for his crimes and achieves all demand. "

The demonstration in Beirut eclipsed previous anti-Syrian demonstrations; CNN said some news outlets put the crowd at 200,000, the Associated Press estimated there were more than 500,000 pro-Syrian protesters, while the New York Times and Los Angeles Times only wrote of "hundreds of thousands" and Al Jazeera wrote over 1.5 million reported. The predominantly Shiite demonstrators held pictures of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and posters that read in English: “No for the American Intervention.” Some anti-Syrian media reported that many of the approximately 500,000 Syrian guest workers in Lebanon participated in the demonstration. The demonstration also underscored the opposition to Resolution 1559, whose call for the disbandment of all Lebanese militias threatens the very existence of Hezbollah's military wing, the force most credited with liberating southern Lebanon.

Ten days after his resignation, Omar Karami had been reappointed prime minister and asked the opposition to participate in the government until the April 2005 elections. On March 13, tens of thousands are reportedly demonstrating in the southern Lebanese city of Nabatea in support of Syria and against UN resolution 1559. The rally in Tripoli has been canceled.

Revived counter-demonstrations

On March 14, 2005, exactly one month after the assassination of Rafik Hariri, hundreds of thousands of denominational Lebanese, including Christians , Druze , Shiites and Sunnis , gathered in central Beirut and shouted "Freedom, Highness, Independence" and carried a huge Lebanese flag. They came from all over the country and many were unable to enter the city because of the crowds. The peaceful rally has been dubbed "the largest demonstration ever seen in Lebanon," with participation estimates ranging from 800,000 to more than a million. The international news media also estimated that it was considerably larger than the previous pro-Syrian rally. The demonstration was called for by various anti-Syrian opposition parties (including the Hariri family and other groups) and was broadcast through various private media outlets, Future TV, a private company that is part of a Hariri family-owned media company, and Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation LBC, which is aligned with the Christian party Forces Libanaises .

The demonstration took place in Martyrs Square, the site of Hariri's tomb and the center of the city, largely rebuilt through Hariri's efforts. During the Lebanese civil war, the close combat between the warring groups had made the area of ​​Martyrs' Square an inaccessible lunar landscape. Indeed, Lebanese unity was a major theme of the demonstration: both a crescent moon and a cross were painted on the protesters' faces and their flags, and veiled women stood next to those with bare belly and navel piercings .

The Lebanese protesters demanded an international investigation into the Hariri murder, the dismissal of the Syrian-backed security chief in the Lebanese government and the complete withdrawal of Syria from Lebanon.

Withdrawal of the Syrian troops

On April 26, 2005, international news agencies and the UN reported that the last Syrian troops and employees of Syria's intelligence services had crossed the border as part of the troop withdrawal. The Syrian government informed the United Nations that it had withdrawn its troops in accordance with UN Resolution 1559, adopted in September 2004. In a note to the UN, Syrian Foreign Minister Farouk Al-Shara wrote that his country “has officially informed them that the Syrian Arab forces stationed in Lebanon, at the request of Lebanon and under an Arab mandate, the entire military, the security apparatus and have completely withdrawn systems. ”On April 27, 2005 the Lebanese celebrated the FREE-FROM-SYRIA day . However, the Washington Post reported: "Syria has not withdrawn a significant portion of its intelligence presence in Lebanon and undermined yesterday's claim to end its 29-year intervention with its western neighbor, United States, Europe and United Nations officials said." This claim was reiterated by Condoleezza Rice on May 25, 2005.

Wave of democracy?

Both participants and observers of the Cedar Revolution have wondered whether the movement has been influenced by other recent democratic events. The presidential elections in Afghanistan , Iraq and the Palestinian Territories , the statement that Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak allows for multi-party elections, as well as local elections in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Orange Revolution in Ukraine may have given examples towards a democratic form of government . Lebanese Druze leader Walid Jumblat told a Washington Post reporter, “It is strange for me to say it, but this process of change began because of the American invasion of Iraq. I was cynical about Iraq. But when I saw the Iraqi people vote three weeks ago, 8 million of them, it was the beginning of a new Arab world. ”In this sense, the Cedar Revolution is also a dividend from the global War on Terror that the Bush administration has proclaimed . Indeed, the Middle East Media Research Institute , which analyzes the media , has recorded him saying, “The axis of oil is currently in most of the American government, starting with the president, vice-president and top advisors , [Condoleezza] Rice who is oil-colored while the Axis of the Jews is present with Paul Wolfowitz , the leading hawk who incites [America] to occupy and destroy Iraq. "

Other opinions are that the Lebanese anger against the perceived Syrian hegemony slumbered for decades and it was the murder of a popular leader who gave the movement the spark, regardless of foreign and regional developments. The Lebanese opposition leader and newspaper columnist Samir Kassir wrote: “Democracy is spreading in the region not because of George Bush, but in spite of him.” Kassir blamed the Palestinian uprising as an inspiration to Lebanese activists.

Others warn that very little has really changed apart from the visible disappearance of Syrian soldiers from the outskirts of Lebanese cities and that Syrian governance of Lebanese foreign policy and trade is still in place. Some critics argue that the frenzy of celebrating a supposed revolution was far too premature.

When Omar Karami failed to form a government, he resigned for good on April 13, 2005, and general elections were called for the period May 29 to June 19, 2005. Saad Al-Hariri formed an anti-Syrian bloc that eventually won 72 of the 128 seats in the one-chamber National Assembly .

After the Israeli air strikes on Lebanon in July 2006 , the position of the United States was challenged with regard to its declared strong support for the Siniora government , which ultimately resulted from the so-called Cedar Revolution. The United States, while expecting Syria to use its contacts to influence Hezbollah, has refused to influence Israel. This underscored the fragility of the Siniora government. Some argue that US passivity towards Israel in July 2006 shows the Siniora government's limited scope of US commitment to survival. It is debatable whether the lack of support for Siniora will allow Syrian influence to regain its strength.

It is indisputable, however, that the events of July 2006 demonstrate the complexity of the background to US support for the Cedar Revolution, in terms of American passivity due to Israel's air strikes against Lebanese targets.

See also

further reading

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Au Liban, le peuple se soulève contre la classe politique. Tribune de Genève . August 24, 2015, accessed December 14, 2016 .
  2. ↑ BBC : Syria sidesteps Lebanon demands , March 6, 2005
  3. ^ U.S. Department of State: Remarks on Release of Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2004 , February 28, 2005
  4. ↑ Washington Post : The Branding of Lebanon's 'Revolution' , March 3, 2005
  5. ↑ Daily Times (Pakistan): New season of revolutions ( Memento of April 13, 2006 in the Internet Archive ), March 28, 2005 (registration required)
  6. ↑ Media Monitors Network: As the Globe spins: Coverage of Lebanon's demonstrations doesn't tell whole story ( Memento from May 25, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ), March 17, 2005
  7. ↑ BBC : Lebanon appoints prime minister , October 21, 2004
  8. ↑ The New York Times : Behind Lebanon Upheaval, 2 Men's Fateful Clash , March 20, 2005 (registration required)
  9. ↑ BBC : Who's Who in Lebanon , March 14, 2005
  10. ↑ The New York Times : UN Cites Syria as Factor in Lebanese Assassination , March 25, 2005 (registration required)
  11. ↑ BBC : Lebanon agrees to Hariri inquiry , March 25, 2005
  12. ↑ BBC : Beirut protesters nounce Syria , February 21, 2005
  13. ↑ Beirut bombing investigated ( Memento from January 19, 2013 in the web archive archive.today )
  14. ^ Statement by the UN Secretary General on the Easter bombings in Lebanon , accessed on September 14, 2012
  15. ↑ BBC : Pro-Syrians 'seek poll sabotage' , March 31, 2005
  16. ↑ CNN : Lebanon strike call after bombing ( Memento of May 14, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), June 3, 2005, accessed on September 14, 2012
  17. ↑ Ya Libnan: Vigil held to honor slain journalist in Beirut ( Memento of May 19, 2006 in the Internet Archive ), June 3, 2005, accessed on September 14, 2012
  18. ↑ BBC : Lebanon finds unity in street rallies March 3, 2005
  19. ↑ BBC : Lebanese ministers forced to quit , February 28, 2005
  20. ↑ BBC : Hariri inquiry judge 'may resign' , March 23, 2005
  21. ^ Independent : Lebanon's deputy PM survives assassination attempt , July 15, 2005
  22. ↑ BBC : Annan considers new Hariri probe , March 23, 2005
  23. ↑ BBC : Lebanon agrees to Hariri inquiry , March 25, 2005
  24. ↑ BBC : Assad pledges Lebanon withdrawal , March 2, 2005
  25. ↑ The Daily Star : Saudi ruler demands rapid Syrian withdrawal , March 4, 2005 (fee required)
  26. ↑ BBC : Syria looks to Riyadh for support , March 3, 2005
  27. ^ The Daily Star : Saudi ruler demands rapid Syrian withdrawal , March 4, 2005
  28. ↑ BBC : Summits that showcase Arab disunity , March 23, 2005
  29. ↑ Yahoo News, March 6, 2005 (link no longer exists)
  30. ↑ CNN : Hezbollah rallies Lebanese to support Syria , March 9, 2005
  31. ^ The New York Times : Hezbollah Leads Huge Pro-Syrian Protest in Central Beirut , March 8, 2005
  32. ↑ Al Jazeera : 1.5 Million pro-Syria demonstrators gather in Beirut ( Memento of March 13, 2005 in the Internet Archive ), March 8, 2005
  33. ↑ Washington Times: Hezbollah supporters stage massive pro-Syria rally , March 9, 2005
  34. ↑ Columbia Journalism Review: Who Are Those Guys, Anyway? , March 10, 2005
  35. ^ The New York Times : Hundreds of Thousands Jam Beirut in Rally Against Syria , March 14, 2005
  36. ↑ http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/50303.pdf
  37. ^ Democracy in Lebanon: Democracy in Lebanon Establishes Web Presence , April 27, 2005
  38. ^ Democracy in Lebanon: AFTER LIBERATION: TIME TO REBUILD OUR DEMOCRACY , April 27, 2005
  39. ↑ Washington Post : Syrian Intelligence Still in Lebanon , April 27, 2005
  40. ↑ Sidney Morning Herald: Cedar Revolution moves towards free democracy , May 28, 2005