History of lebanon

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This article describes the history of the country of Lebanon .

Lebanon in the Paleolithic and Ancient Times

The area of ​​today's Lebanon was already settled by anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) at least 40,000 years ago . This is evidenced, among other things, by excavations in the archaeological site of Ksar Akil northeast of Beirut .

Lebanon was after the conquest of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus in 63 BC. Part of the Roman province of Syria .

Rule of the Arabs and the Crusaders (636–1517)

The Lebanon was after the Battle of Yarmuk in August 636, in the Muslim Arabs , the Byzantines , to the defeated Caliphate connected and informed to the 19th century the fate of Syria . So he was ruled successively until the 11th century by the Umayyad , Abbasid and Fatimid caliphs . Under the Fatimids, the Druze religious community under al-Labbad was established in Cairo in 1010, who viewed the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim (995-1021) as the incarnation of God. After al-Hakim's murder, the Druze were persecuted in Egypt and Syria, but were able to hold their own in the Lebanon Mountains . Under the Muslim rule, the Christian and Jewish sections of the population of Syria were largely able to assert themselves. The Aramaic-Syrian Christians (as opposed to the Greek-speaking Orthodox Christians at the time ) and the Jews relatively quickly adopted Arabic, which is related to their liturgical languages, as a colloquial and educational language. Centuries later, towards the end of the 19th century, it was mainly Syrian Christians and Jews who were supposed to pursue the cultural renewal of the Arabic language ( al-nahda ).

Although the Seljuks expelled the Fatimids from Syria and Lebanon after 1071, they could not establish a stable rule, so that the Crusaders were able to establish the county of Tripoli after the 1st Crusade after the conquest of Tripoli (1109) . The crusaders could only be driven out around 1291 under the Mameluke Sultan Chalil . In 1517 Lebanon and Syria came under the rule of the Ottomans after the fall of the Mameluke Empire .

Ottoman rule (1517-1860)

Under the Ottomans, the Druze emirs gained great influence under the Man clan in the 16th century and were able to rule Lebanon largely independently (see also: Druze emirate ). Around 1800 the Maronites gained increasing economic influence, as they could benefit greatly from their trade contacts. The economic development of the then so-called Levant also aroused the interest of the major European powers, especially France and England . While France traditionally supported the Christian-Catholic population of the Levant (especially the Maronites), England was interested in the Druze minority, who were the notables , especially in the more southern areas . Not least because of the intrigues of the French and the British, who struggled for greater influence, and because of the relative better position of the Maronites, especially in the last years of the Emirates, the first clashes of a confessional character occurred from 1820 onwards. The Egyptian invasion under Ibrahim Pascha , son of Muhammad Ali Pascha , only intensified these tensions, because his reforms resulted in a further upswing of the Maronite farmers. It was mainly thanks to the support of the European powers (with the exception of France) that the Ottoman Empire was able to regain control of the Syrian provinces. During sectarian unrest after this reconquest, the city of Dair al-Qamar was conquered by the Druze. The last emir, Bashir III. , was then deposed by the Sublime Porte and sent into exile.

After the end of the Emirates, the Lebanon Mountains were divided into two districts under the rule of the Wali of Sidon . The northern district got a Maronite and the southern part a Druze governor. In the course of a reform of this system in 1845 by Shakib Efendi , councils were formed which were subordinate to the governors. The members of these councils represented the respective religious communities in the Lebanon Mountains. These councils are significant in that they ushered in the denominational division of political offices, which continues to this day.

  • The last Lebanese emir, Bashir III.

  • Sheikh Yoosuf il Haazin, Patriarch of the Maronites

  • Sheikh Ammeenadeen, head of the Druze

This system brought with it an uneasy peace. Especially in the northern province, which was administered by a Maronite governor, tensions between peasants and feudal lords increased dramatically. Finally, in 1858, the peasants in the Keserwan district led an uprising, driving out the Khazin feudal family and their allies. The last important feudal lords were expelled and the Maronite Church gained influence over the peasants.

Two years later, the conflict between the Druze feudal lords and the mostly Maronite peasants escalated in the southern district. Especially under the influence of the Maronite bishop in Beirut , the discontent of the peasants was directed against all Druze. In return, the Druze notables succeeded in inciting their co-religionists (and also other Muslims, as well as some Greek Orthodox) against the Maronites by stirring up fears of the establishment of a Maronite emirate. In addition, the partisanship of the British and French made resentment worse. Since the 1840s there were serious armed clashes between the two groups, with the Ottoman army unilaterally taking sides with the Druze. During a Druze attack, the Maronite-inhabited city of Dair al-Qamar was set on fire and the civilian population was massacred.

In 1860 the conflict escalated into civil war in the Lebanon Mountains between the Maronites and Druze. The Ottoman forces did nothing to prevent the massacres of Christians and even provided indirect assistance to the attacking Druze. According to modern historical research, the number of Maronite Christians murdered in the process was very high. Estimates of the number of Maronite victims vary between 7,000 and 20,000 dead; Tens of thousands more Christians were left homeless. The bloodshed only ended with the intervention of France, the protective power of the Maronites, which also enforced the autonomy of the affected sanjak under a Christian governor.

Independent Ottoman Province (1860–1915)

Ottoman map from 1907, which the Mutesarriflik Lebanon mountain shows

After the pogroms of 1860, the Mutesarriflik Lebanonberg was built and administered by an independent Ottoman governor. From 1864 the area was part of the Greater Beirut Province . The governor of Lebanon always had to be a Catholic ( united with Rome ) Christian who did not come from Lebanon. The establishment required the approval of the European powers. The autonomy of Lebanon was monitored by an international commission. Nevertheless, the overthrow of the despotic sultan Abdülhamid II in 1908 was enthusiastically celebrated in Lebanon. MPs from Lebanon were also sent to the newly created parliament in Constantinople . The last Ottoman civil governor, Johannes Kouyoumdjian Pascha , an Armenian from Istanbul and former Ottoman vice foreign minister, who was Catholic and had a Maronite mother, took office in 1913, which he held until the civil administration was abolished in 1915.

Lebanon flourished economically and culturally during this time. Beirut with its French-influenced culture became a jewel of the Ottoman Empire and established its reputation as the “Paris of the Middle East”. Poets and intellectuals like Khalil Gibran achieved world renown. The specialization of Lebanese agriculture in luxury products such as viticulture and silkworm breeding was to be the undoing of the Lebanese during the First World War.

Ottoman-German military administration, famine (1915-1919)

At the beginning of the First World War , the independent administration was abolished and at the end of 1915 Lebanon was placed under Ottoman (Turkish) military administration. The Ottoman civil governor was recalled to Constantinople. Alongside Cairo and Damascus, Beirut was one of the centers of this national movement, which was bloodily suppressed by the Ottomans during the First World War. Among other things, numerous people were executed on the Place des Canons in Beirut in 1916, which has been called Place des Martyrs ever since and is still a reminder of this event today.

The Allied sea blockade and food requisitions by the German and Ottoman army units operating in Lebanon led to famine and epidemics, as a result of which around 100,000 of the 450,000 people living in Lebanon at the time, mainly Christians, perished ( see Famine in Lebanon 1916–1918 ). While the German authorities watched the fate of the Lebanese largely inactive (the oriental-looking but predominantly French-speaking and Catholic "Levantines" were suspicious of the Protestant-Prussian-dominated German elite), there were massive protests, especially in the USA. a. organized by Lebanese emigrants like Khalil Gibran and certainly contributed to the USA's entry into the First World War. Many Lebanese emigrated during this time, especially to the USA, Canada, Latin America, Australia and South Africa. Today there are around six million Maronites from Lebanon alone worldwide. At the same time, after the First World War, Lebanon took in several hundred thousand Armenian refugees from Anatolia, who are now integrated into Lebanese society while maintaining their own linguistic and cultural traditions, and who live mainly in the Beirut district of Bourj Hammoud .

French mandate (1919-1943)

FIAV historical.svgLebanese flag during the mandate

After the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, the Entente powers also occupied Lebanon in 1918/19.

After the San Remo Conference in 1920, the League of Nations gave France the League of Nations mandate for Syria and Lebanon . The French general Henri Gouraud divided the mandate into six states. The state of Greater Lebanon , which was proclaimed in 1920 , later became modern Lebanon. The Christian nationalists in Lebanon initially supported this French mandate, while the Arab nationalists, like those in Syria, Iraq and Palestine, sought an independent Arab nation. The French mandate administration was initially undecided which future Lebanon should take. High Commissioner Gouraud in particular was considering a federal association with the Syrian states, to which Lebanon should also belong. However, the French had been given the mandate of the League of Nations to proclaim a constitution within a certain period of time. After that time, a Druze uprising in Hauran in 1925 quickly spread to the other Syrian mandate areas. To ensure peace in Lebanon, the French had to rely on the support of their traditional Maronite allies. Its most influential representatives (especially the Maronite Church ) vigorously advocated an independent “Greater Lebanon”. In 1926 they got what they wanted. The new constitution of Lebanon finally confirmed the borders.

From November 1929 to November 1931 Charles de Gaulle was stationed in Beirut, where he trained Lebanese officers, among other things. Later in the Second World War, this was initially to be of use to Free France , which found allies in the Lebanese, and later also to the Lebanese Republic, which in France to this day has an important supporter on the international stage.

During the Second World War, Lebanon was initially controlled by the Vichy regime from mid-1940 . The authorities in Vichy in 1941 gave Germany permission to move planes and supplies via Syria to Iraq, where they were used against Britain. Fearing that the National Socialist regime might take complete control of Lebanon and Syria, the British government sent its army to Syria and Lebanon.

When France had been completely under the control of the German occupation since November 11, 1942 and de Gaulle urgently needed troops, he then put together volunteer associations ( Troupes Spéciales du Levant ) under the command of General Fuad Schihab , which formed a core of the army of Free France . During two very critical phases, the Lebanese units commanded by Schihab relieved the Allies: In the Battle of Bir Hakeim in Libya, they and their French comrades successfully bound German and Italian troop units, so that Montgomery Erwin Rommel's Africa Corps was able to stop in El Alamein . Before the Allied invasion of Normandy , they relieved Allied troops in the Battle of Monte Cassino .

On November 26, 1941, the French general Georges Catroux announced the independence of Lebanon and its subordination to the Free French government. Elections were held in early November 1943, and on November 8, 1943, the new Lebanese government unilaterally dissolved the French mandate . French forces arrested the new members of the government; under international pressure, they were released on November 22, 1943, whereupon Lebanon's independence was accepted. The country was under Allied control until the end of the Second World War . The last French troops were withdrawn in 1946. The British, who had long competed with the French for supremacy in the region, ostentatiously opened embassies in Syria and Lebanon. With the mediation of the British Minister in Lebanon, General Edward Spears, liberal Christians and the Sunni elite of the coastal cities finally came closer.

Difficult beginning of independence (1945-1970)

In 1945 Lebanon was a founding member of the United Nations , the Lebanese diplomat Charles Malik (1933 PhD student in philosophy with Martin Heidegger , fled from Germany to the USA before the National Socialists and became friends with Hannah Arendt ) played an important role in the drafting of the UN Charter . As a result of a strong economic boom, Lebanon became the commercial center of the Middle East. Internal tensions, however, persisted, especially as the influx of Palestinian refugees increased the proportion of Muslims compared to other denominational groups. From the Israeli perspective, Lebanon was initially considered neutral. 1945 took Zionist leaders like David Ben-Gurion and Moshe Sharett the Beirut airport and then to the Pan Am owned airline Middle East Airlines for travel abroad after they exit from Palestine to the British authorities Lod Airport had refused. After the founding of the state of Israel , Lebanon participated in the Palestine War with a small contingent of troops .

The 1958 Lebanon crisis between proponents of pro-Western and pro-Arab policies could only be ended with US intervention . Afterwards, Fuad Schihab (Fouad Chehab) was elected president, who as a former commander of the allied Lebanese armed forces had excellent relations with his comrade-in-arms Eisenhower and de Gaulle in World War II , but, unlike other Arab generals, saw himself as a servant of the republic in state offices. He tried to promote the integration and development of the country through initially very successful development and domestic policy, which was named after him Chehabism , to restore the state's monopoly on the use of force and, in particular, to get the Palestinian irregulars, who are increasingly operating over Lebanese territory, under control. However, in 1964 the politicians Pierre Gemayel and Kamal Jumblatt jointly prevented a re-election of Schihab, whom they officially accused of wanting to build a military regime based on the Latin American model in Lebanon. In reality, they wanted to prevent Schihab from disarming their own armed groups that already existed at the time. In economic terms, too, the country's instability increased significantly from 1966 onwards as a result of the bankruptcy of Intrabank , the country's largest and most important bank, and numerous other financial institutions that formed the backbone of the Lebanese economy.

At the end of 1968, following a Palestinian guerrilla operation, the Israeli air raid on the civil airport of Beirut, with serious consequences, destroyed a large part of the fleet of the national airline Middle East Airlines , which was built up by Pan Am and Air France in the 1950s . After France's President de Gaulle stopped the previously very close military cooperation with Israel shortly before the outbreak of the Six Day War and imposed an arms embargo on June 2, 1967 , Israeli cooperation with the USA was increasingly expanded, which has now replaced France as Israel's most important armaments partner to have.

Civil War (1970–1989)

After Black September 1970, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) moved its command structure to Beirut, established itself in southern Lebanon (“Fatah country”) and, with its military institutions, developed increasingly into a state within a state . On April 13, 1975 the civil war broke out , which led to several Syrian (1976) and Israeli interventions ( Inter-Arab Security Force ). On March 14, 1978, after several attacks by the PLO, the last of which was an attack on an Israeli bus near Tel Aviv on March 11, 1978, killing 37 Israelis and injuring another 76, the Israeli army marched as part of the operation Litani invaded southern Lebanon and occupied the area south of the Litani River . Between 1000 and 2000 people were killed and, according to estimates by the Lebanese government, around 280,000 were displaced. Five days after this invasion, UN Security Council Resolution 425 was adopted, and UNIFIL troops were stationed in southern Lebanon to implement it . Instead, the Israeli troops created the SLA , paid for by Israel , in which not only Christians but also a few Shiites served at the beginning, but then, through ruthless action against the predominantly Shiite-Muslim rural population themselves, increased the popularity of the Shiite organization, which also faces the extreme disadvantage of the south in the supply by the Beirut government. Israel began the Lebanon campaign in June 1982 , besieged and bombed western Beirut for 10 weeks and on August 21, 1982 forced the PLO to withdraw completely from Lebanon. In 1985, Israel withdrew to southern Lebanon again.

Even before the civil war, the Shiites developed into the largest religious group in Lebanon. Since they made up a large part of the poor rural population of the south and, in their opinion, were not adequately represented in the “ National Pact ” of 1943 (to this day they only provide the ceremonially important deputy head of state with the President of Parliament), a new political one developed at the beginning of the 1970s Movement, the Amal movement founded by Imam Musa as-Sadr (who disappeared in Libya in 1978) . After the disappearance of the Imam, who was a rather moderate Muslim by today's standards and who had also been committed to interfaith dialogue with Christianity before 1975, Nabih Berri , a former manager in the automotive industry who had lived in Detroit for some time , new leader of the Amal. Since the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979, Hezbollah emerged at the same time , which ideologically closely leaned on the ideas of Khomenei and which initially tried to combat Western influence in Lebanon in 1983 with suicide bombings and hostage-taking . She finally turned to the armed struggle against the Israeli occupation forces in southern Lebanon.

US embassy in Beirut destroyed by a bomb attack, April 1983

On April 18, 1983, a suicide bomber killed over 60 people in a bomb attack on the US Embassy in Beirut . On September 17, 1983, the US Navy first shelled Syrian positions near Beirut. On October 23, 1983, there were serious bomb attacks on the headquarters of the American and French peacekeeping forces in Lebanon. On December 4, 1983, a US A-6E Intruder fighter aircraft was shot down over Lebanon. The pilot Lange died, the weapons systems officer Goodman survived the crash and was taken prisoner. The Syrians released Goodman on January 3, 1984 through the mediation of the American Reverend Jesse Jackson . On January 9, 1984, the US battleship USS New Jersey (BB-62) fired again on the Beirut coast; At the same time, US soldiers secured a stretch of coast called the Green Coast and Beirut Airport in the south of Beirut as part of the multinational peacekeeping force.

The Lebanese civil war was only ended in 1990 with the Taif Agreement .

1990 to 2011

As a result, the situation in the country calmed down and the country's economic reconstruction began. The firm Solidere of the Lebanese-Saudi billionaire Rafiq al-Hariri played a decisive role. The Sunni Hariri was until his assassination in February 2005 several times Sunni prime minister and a symbol of the now power politics nachvollzogene demographic shift in favor of the Muslims in Lebanon. However, the south of Lebanon remained occupied - the Hezbollah militia operating there, which was not disarmed under Syrian pressure, could not be militarily crushed even by two military interventions by Israel. Due to the Israeli action against the civilian population and the destruction of infrastructure (e.g. substations ) during the intervention ordered by Prime Minister Rabin in 1993, it also became increasingly popular in Christian areas. A high point was Operation The Fruits of Anger , ordered by Rabin's successor Shimon Peres in April 1996 , in particular the artillery attack on the UN-FIJIBATT headquarters ( UNIFIL ) in Cana in southern Lebanon, which killed 118 Lebanese civilians. In 2000, Israel withdrew from the so-called security zone in southern Lebanon, thereby fulfilling the requirements of Resolution 425 of the UN Security Council from 1978.

After Rafiq al-Hariri fell victim to an assassination attempt on his vehicle convoy on February 14, 2005 , the pressure on Syria grew, which was held indirectly (and now also directly) responsible for the assassination by the USA and the Lebanese opposition, among others. to restore full sovereignty to the state of Lebanon by withdrawing the Syrian troops remaining in the country and to end the Syrian presence in Lebanon . Although the masterminds of the attack are still unknown, the pro-Syrian government resigned in the wake of the Cedar Revolution . Syria withdrew all of its troops by the end of April 2005 . Shortly afterwards the parliamentary elections took place in Lebanon in 2005 and the Lebanese government of July 2005 was formed , a very heterogeneous coalition of different parties. Hezbollah is represented there, as are the parties of the future movement Saad al-Hariris , the son of the former prime minister.

After the kidnapping of two Israeli soldiers on July 12, 2006 by Hezbollah units, the 34-day Second Lebanon War began . Following the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1701 , a ceasefire entered into force on August 14, 2006. The UNIFIL mandate was expanded and the quotas increased. At the same time, Lebanese troops were advancing into southern Lebanon for the first time since the beginning of the Lebanese civil war in 1975 .

After the end of the Lebanon War, Hezbollah called for a stronger representation of the Shiites in the Lebanese government. After the resignation of six ministers, the opposition she led has questioned the legitimacy of the current Lebanese government. However, the March 14 Alliance accuses Hezbollah and its allies of running this campaign on instructions from Syria to prevent the establishment of an international tribunal to investigate the attack on Rafiq al-Hariri and the condemnation of those behind it. On March 1, 2009, the special tribunal for Lebanon was established. Najib Miqati was Prime Minister until February 14, 2014 . As of February 15, 2015, Tammam Salam was the country's new Prime Minister.

From 2011: Change of government and spill-over of the war in Syria

On January 12, 2011, the Saad al-Hariri-led government of national unity, in which several Hezbollah ministers were involved, collapsed. Hezbollah and the ex-general Michel Aoun , allied with Hezbollah, had dismissed their ministers from the government because al-Hariri refused to speak out against the special tribunal for Lebanon , which those responsible for the attack on his father Rafiq al-Hariri are indicting should condemn. After Druze leader Walid Jumblat realigned his political position - not for the first time in Lebanon's history since the outbreak of civil war in 1975 - and now supports Hezbollah and its allies, the pro-Syrian Sunni politician Najib Miqati succeeded Saad al-Hariri elected to the Prime Minister's office and then appointed by President Sulaiman.

The appointment of Miqati led to violent demonstrations and expressions of displeasure, especially among the Sunni population. In Tripoli , but also in Beirut, car tires were set on fire and barricades were erected.

After the start of the uprising in Syria , fighting broke out in Tripoli in June 2011 for the first time between Sunni and Alawite groups, in which seven people were killed and 59 wounded. The trigger was a demonstration in support of the opponents of Syrian President Assad . In February 2012 there were again fighting with three dead, the Bab-el-Tabbaneh-Jabal-Mohsen conflict .

Fighting broke out again in mid-May 2012 after the Lebanese security forces arrested a Sunni Islamist who was accused of belonging to a terrorist organization. The prisoner's supporters then blocked a street; Salafists have demanded his release and will show themselves ready to fight the Lebanese security forces if the blockade is cleared. Seven people were killed and fifty injured in subsequent fighting. A few days later a prominent Sunni cleric was shot dead by the Lebanese army under as yet unexplained circumstances. The anti-Syrian Lebanese opposition then announced a three-day general strike and threatened - if the "murderers" were not brought to justice - with the establishment of a "Free Lebanese Army" based on the Syrian model .

In early August 2014, the Lebanese armed forces arrested a rebel leader in the Syrian civil war. However, this action put the rebels in an uproar and resulted in the uprising in Arsal . It was the first time since the outbreak of civil war in the neighboring country that the security forces lost control of an entire city.

By 2019, more than a million Syrians had come to Lebanon as a result of the Syrian civil war. As of April 30, 2019, the number of immigrant Syrians in the Bekaa governorate was 222,707, in Mount Lebanon 221,121, in northern Lebanon 140,663, in Baalbek-Hermel 118,527, 106,333 in Akkar , 68,986 in southern Lebanon and 41,310 in Nabatiye .

The Lebanese central government does not officially recognize the Syrians as refugees and left their supplies to the UN, aid organizations and European donors, such as Germany, whose development ministry has transferred 825 million euros to Lebanon since 2012. Under the Lebanese Foreign Minister Gebran Bassil , who complained that the refugees endanger the genetic superiority of the Lebanese, the living conditions of the Syrians in Lebanon deteriorated. There was one hand called upon to photograph Syrian attendents, construction workers and laborers and to report to the police, on the other hand fared as in the area around Arsal since the Syrian civil war built the adoption block stone houses demolish the refugees because their construction was not approved. Approximately 15,000 people, including 7,500 children, were affected by the demolition of the houses.

Nationwide protests and resignation of Saad Hariri (2019)

Protests on Beirut Martyrs Square on October 27, 2019

Even after Prime Minister Saad Hariri announced a series of reforms, the nationwide protests against corruption and mismanagement, which had been going on since October 17, 2019, continued. The demonstrators rejected Hariri's plans and called for a new political system and a new government. Prime Minister Hariri then resigned on October 29th.

In the following weeks of November 2019, the politicians could not agree on the form of a new government. Hariri had insisted on running a government of technocrats, while his opponents, including the militant Hezbollah, called for a cabinet of experts and politicians. When asked whether he would take part in the new cabinet, Hariri said: “I will not nominate political figures, but experts.” The demonstrators managed to use road closures and other resistance tactics to put the politicians under pressure to respond to their demands for a government and to respond to new elections. They have insisted that a new cabinet be formed from independent figures outside the elite who have ruled the country since the end of the civil war in 1975-1990.

On December 19, 2019, the President of Lebanon asked the university professor Hassan Diab , a former minister supported by Hezbollah, to form a new government. Michel Aoun named Diab Prime Minister after a day of consultation after winning a simple majority in the 128-member parliament. 69 parliamentarians, including the parliamentary bloc of the Shiite Hezbollah and Amal movements , as well as groups affiliated with President Michel Aoun gave him their votes. Diab was only able to present his new cabinet on January 21, 2020 .

Prime Minister Hassan Diab said in a televised address on March 7, 2020 that Lebanon would not be able to service the government bond of $ 1.2 billion due on March 9 . The country, which has been hit by a severe economic crisis, is thus heading for national bankruptcy . In addition, the country's socio-economic situation was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2020 .

Explosion disaster in the port of Beirut on August 4, 2020

Destruction in the port of Beirut after the explosion in 2020

According to the Lebanese Ministry of Health, 135 people were killed and around 5,000 injured in the explosion on August 4, 2020. Numerous people are missing. The detonation tore a crater around 200 meters in diameter into the harbor, which filled with seawater. Large parts of the city's port , which is central to the supply of the country, have been destroyed or damaged. The Diab cabinet resigned on August 10 because of the devastating explosion and subsequent protests. This decision came under pressure after several ministers left office.

literature

German

  • Dar al Janub (Ed.): ... and where is Palestine? A trip to the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon. Vienna 2006 ISBN 3-9502184-0-8
  • Theodor Hanf: Coexistence in War - State Collapse and the Emergence of a Nation in Lebanon. Nomos, Baden-Baden 1990, ISBN 3-7890-1972-0
  • Volker Perthes : Lebanon after the Civil War - From Ta'if to Social Consensus? Nomos, Baden-Baden 1994, ISBN 3-7890-3403-7
  • Gerhard Wiegand (Ed.): Half moon in the last quarter. Letters and travel reports from old Turkey from Theodor and Marie Wiegand 1895 to 1918. Munich 1970 (contains diary entries of the archaeologist Theodor Wiegand , who led the excavations in Baalbek from 1917 to 1918 , about the famine in Lebanon 1916–1918 )
  • Alfred Schlicht: France and the Syrian Christians 1799–1861. Berlin 1981

French

  • Ohannès Pacha Kouyoumdjian: Le Liban - à la veille et au début de la guerre: Memoires d'un gouverneur, 1913–15 : Revue d'histoire arménienne contemporaine, tome V, 2003, ( ISSN  1259-4873 ).
  • Georges Corm : Le Liban contemporain - histoire et société. Ed. La Découverte, Paris 2003, ISBN 2-7071-3788-X
  • Raoul Assaf: Atlas du Liban - geographie, histoire, économie. Pr. De l'Univ. Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth 2003, ISBN 995-39015-5-4
  • Issam A. Halifa: Des étapes décisives dans l'histoire du Liban. Self-published, Beyrouth 1997
  • Samir Khalaf: Persistence and Change in 19th Century Lebanon : American University of Beirut, Beirut 1979,
  • Boutros Labaki, Khalil A. Rjeily: Introduction à l'histoire économique du Liban - soie et commerce extérieur en fin de période ottomane (1840–1914). Libr. Orientale, Beyrouth 1984

English

  • David Fromkin : A Peace to end all peace - creating the modern Middle East 1914–1922 : Penguin, London 1989, ISBN 0-14-015445-0
  • William Harris: Faces of Lebanon - Sects, Wars and Global Extensions : Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton NJ 1997, ISBN 1-55876-116-0
  • Rosemary Hollis, Nadim Shehadi (Eds.): Lebanon on hold (April 1996) - Implications for Middle East Peace : RIIA Middle East Program (Chatham House) London and Center of Lebanese Studies Oxford, 1996, ISBN 1-86203-020-0 (Analysis of the situation in Lebanon after the Israeli operation “The Fruits of Anger” in April 1996, with contributions from Richard W. Murphy, Volker Perthes, Patrick Seale and many others)
  • Kamal S. Salibi : The Modern History of Lebanon : Caravan Books, New York 1977, ISBN 0-88206-015-5
  • Kamal S. Salibi: A House of Many Mansions - The History of Lebanon Reconsidered : University of California Press, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-07196-4

Web links

Commons : History of Lebanon  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica : Ottoman period (from Lebanon)
  2. ↑ More about Spears in the English Wikipedia
  3. ^ "Death toll in Lebanon's Tripoli rises amid sectarian clashes" ( Memento from September 6, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ), Now Lebanon , May 14, 2012.
  4. ↑ Foreign Policy: A “Yemeni Solution” for Syria? , nachrichten.at, May 20, 2012.
  5. ↑ SPIEGEL ONLINE: Lebanon wants to get rid of the Syrian refugees. Retrieved July 7, 2019 .
  6. ↑ SPIEGEL ONLINE: Lebanon wants to get rid of the Syrian refugees. Retrieved July 7, 2019 .
  7. ↑ Christoph Reuter: Military action against Syrians in Lebanon: Bulldozers against refugees . In: Spiegel Online . July 2, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed July 7, 2019]).
  8. ↑ Christoph Reuter: Military action against Syrians in Lebanon: Bulldozers against refugees . In: Spiegel Online . July 2, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed July 7, 2019]).
  9. ↑ a b Christoph Ehrhardt, Beirut: Harassment of Syrians in Lebanon: We are not an aid organization . ISSN  0174-4909 ( faz.net [accessed July 7, 2019]).
  10. ↑ SPIEGEL ONLINE: Lebanon wants to get rid of the Syrian refugees. Retrieved July 7, 2019 .
  11. ↑ EpochTimes.de: Lebanese army starts demolishing refugee accommodation . July 1, 2019, accessed on July 7, 2019 (German).
  12. ^ Crisis in Lebanon: Prime Minister Hariri gives up. Tagesschau, October 29, 2019, accessed on November 2, 2019 .
  13. ↑ Bassem Mroue: Lebanon's Outgoing Prime Minister Backs Businessman to Replace Him. Time Magazine, December 3, 2019, accessed December 4, 2019 .
  14. ↑ Lebanon president Aoun names former minister Diab next PM. Al Ahram, December 19, 2019, accessed December 19, 2019 .
  15. ↑ Naharnet Newsdesk: Diab: Govt. Will Seek to Meet Protesters Demands, Recover Stolen Funds. Naharnet, January 21, 2020, accessed on January 22, 2020 .
  16. ↑ After the first default - worries about national bankruptcy in Lebanon are growing. N-TV, March 9, 2020, accessed March 9, 2020 .
  17. ↑ Naharnet Newsdesk: Minister Says' Whole Govt. Resigned ', Diab to Speak at 7:30 PM. Naharnet, August 10, 2020, accessed on August 10, 2020 .