History of Pakistan

Together with India, Pakistan isone of the two states that emerged from the dissolution of the British Indian colony in1947. For the period before 1885 see History of India .

On the way to independence

The British government had exercised direct power in India since the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, claiming prerogative over the British East India Company . The Congress Party , founded in 1885, represented a large Hindu majority. In response to this, the Muslim League ( All-India Muslim League ) was founded in 1906 to represent the interests of the minority. Despite a large number of conversions to Islam , Muslims found it difficult to counteract the supremacy of Hindus in the fields of industry, handicrafts, education or public office. Even if Congress and the Muslim League had the same goal - independence - they could not agree on a course of action that would have made it possible to protect political, economic and religious rights.

The origins of the name "Pakistan" are disputed. In Urdu it means "land of the pure" ( pak : pure; stan : land). However, it is also conceivable that "Pakistan" one of the names of former provinces - P unjab, A fghanien, K aschmir, I ndus- S ind and Baluchi tan - composite acronym is.

The idea of an independent state is attributed to the Muslim politician, official and founder of schools and universities Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898); it was formalized by the philosopher Muhammad Iqbal (1887–1938) during a speech held in Allahabad for the annual session of the Muslim League in 1930.

In 1937 women were granted national voting rights, but it was tied to reading and writing skills, income and taxation. In 1946, in the first election based on the Government of India Act of 1919, women were allowed to vote under certain conditions. The conditions applied to very few women. Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah was elected to the United Constituent Assembly of India in 1946, before Pakistan split off. However, because of the ongoing clashes, the Muslim League ordered that its members should not take the seats in the assembly. In 1947 Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah and Jahanara Shah Nawaz were elected to the national parliament.

On March 23, 1940, the goal of the establishment of an independent state was recorded in the text later called the Lahore resolution , and thus the official policy of the Muslim League headed by Ali Jinnah .

Establishment of Pakistan

With the Second World War , the pressure of the Indian nationalists on the British government to demand cooperation from India increased. Mahatma Gandhi and Congress founded the "Quit India" movement , which the Muslim League did not formally join. A period of uncontrolled violence followed.

Division and independence

The British, who had been determined to leave India since 1945, found themselves confronted in 1946 with increased and bloody clashes between Muslims on the one hand and Sikhs and Hindus on the other. The Muslim League, which continued to call for the establishment of a state in the Muslim-majority areas, became the strongest force in most constituencies in 1946. Despite resistance from Nehru and Gandhi , the British decided to divide British India with the Mountbatten Plan . With the Indian Independence Act passed by the British Parliament, power was transferred separately to India and the new state of Pakistan on August 14, 1947 at midnight. Pakistan and India thus became independent states and members of the Commonwealth . The head of state of the Dominion of Pakistan was formally the English King George VI.

The new state consisted of two parts 1,700 kilometers apart: East Pakistan , which later became independent as Bangladesh itself, and West Pakistan , which was made up of Sindh , western Punjab , Balochistan , the northwestern provinces and several small states.

The secession from India led to massive migrations. More than six million Muslim Indians sought refuge in the new state, while about as many Hindus and Sikhs left the Punjab for India. These migrations were accompanied by violence and massacres that left 500,000 victims. The issue of the different population groups was never resolved by these migrations, as the majority of Muslims remained in India.

After independence in August 1947, the Government of India Act of 1935 became the Constitution of Pakistan. Certain women were able to vote on this basis in provincial and national elections.

State building and the cashmere question

Ali Jinnah , also known as Qaid-i-Azam ("Great Leader"), became Pakistan's first governor-general; Prime Minister was Liaquat Ali Khan and Foreign Minister Sir Zafrullah Khan (who, however, disappeared from history, especially during Bhutto's time, as he belonged to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community ). Pakistan with its provisional capital Karachi began without qualified ministers and was faced with the task of establishing its own administrative and state system. At the same time, the numerous refugees had to be integrated into society, their own economy had to be built and an army had to be set up in the geographically very fragmented national territory . The Prime Minister's wife, Begum Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan , who had been politically active since the independence movement , also excelled in these tasks . In addition to refugee and women's rights movements, she also organized and commanded the voluntary women's associations of the army, which earned her the title of “mother of Pakistan”.

At the same time, the Maharaja of Kashmir , the Dogra Hindu Hari Singh , called for the support of the Indian army . Pashtun militants, supported by the Pakistani government, had invaded his formally independent state . On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja declared Kashmir's annexation to India, even though 78 percent of the population was Muslim. Pakistan disapproved of this decision and the First Indo-Pakistani War broke out . India occupied two thirds of Kashmir. On January 1, 1949, an armistice came into force with the participation of the United Nations . The United Nations proposal to hold a referendum on the future status of the area was not implemented. Instead, a provisional ceasefire line was established, called the LOC ( Line of Control ). Then two thirds of Kashmir came to India as the state of Jammu and Kashmir with the capital Srinagar ; In addition to the northern regions (capital Gilgit ), Pakistan administered the remaining third, which is called Asad Kashmir ("free Kashmir", capital Muzaffarabad ).

Democratic Efforts (1947-1958)

From the beginning, the state suffered from political instability and major economic problems. Jinnah died in 1948; the Prime Minister Ali Khan was assassinated on October 16, 1951 by an Afghan fanatic. Pakistan lacked a leading figure whose role neither the Prime Ministers Nazimuddin (1951–53) and Muhammad Ali Bogra (1953–55), nor the Governor General Ghulam Muhammad (1951–55) could take.

In East Pakistan , which felt too little attention from the distant government, there was growing dissatisfaction. The Muslim League was increasingly confronted with electoral debacles, especially in 1954. New elections were held, which in 1955 led to a new National Assembly no longer chaired by the Muslim League. Chaudhri Muhammad Ali became Prime Minister and Iskander Mirza became Governor General of the country. The National Assembly drew up a new constitution.

When a new constitution was being discussed in the 1950s, it was suggested that all men should be given the right to vote, but only educated women. There were tendencies towards Islamization. For example, the dictator Mohammed Zia-ul-Haq did not want to deprive women of the right to vote, but did want women in civil service to have full body veils. On March 23, 1956, Pakistan's first constitution was passed, providing for universal active and passive voting rights for adults aged 21 and over at all levels if they had lived in the country for six months. In 1956, women were granted the right to vote for the first time in full and to the same extent as the right to vote for men. With the proclamation of the constitution on March 23, 1956, Pakistan became the world's first Islamic republic . Mirza became the provisional president. However, without a clear majority in the assembly, the political situation remained unstable. There were frequent changes of government, fueled by widespread corruption and - despite international aid - the economic situation remained precarious.

However, no election was held under this constitution because of the difficulties between civil and military powers. Faced with the impossibility of appeasing the troubled situation in East Pakistan, Mirza turned to the general and troop chief Muhammad Ayub Khan . On October 7, 1958, Mirza repealed the constitution and declared martial law .

Military dictatorship and independence of Bangladesh

The Ayub regime

Twenty days after the constitution was repealed, the military leaders forced President Mirza into exile and General Muhammad Ayub Khan took over the leadership of the military dictatorship . Several large-scale reforms followed: an agrarian reform (9,000 km² divided among 150,000 peasants), an economic development plan, restrictions on polygamy and divorces, and in 1962 a new constitution in which two official languages, Bengali and Urdu , were established. Islamabad became the new capital and Dhaka , in East Pakistan, the seat of the legislature.

In East Pakistan, where the problems persisted, the Awami League established itself as an oppositional force. Despite some diplomatic progress, relations with India remained tense, partly because of the Kashmir issue and partly because of religious conflicts which India continued to suffer - particularly in the state of Madhya Pradesh , where several thousand Muslims were massacred in 1961. Relations with Afghanistan also deteriorated between 1961 and 1963 after a series of incidents at the border, fueled by the Soviet Union , which wanted to achieve the establishment of an independent Pashtunistan .

In 1965 the Second Indo-Pakistani War began . In 1966, President Ayub Khan and Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri reached an agreement in the Tashkent Agreement under the protection of the Soviet Union, although the Kashmir issue had not yet been resolved. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto resigned as foreign minister and opposed Ayub Khan and the abandonment of Kashmir. Bhutto was the founder of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP), which the socialism was close to.

President Ayub Khan resigned in March 1969 after serious civil unrest broke out in late 1968 and transferred power to General Muhammad Yahya Khan , who reinstated martial law.

Civil war and establishment of Bangladesh

In the 1970 elections, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Awami League was hugely successful, with 153 seats out of 163 allocated to East Pakistan; Bhutto's PPP dominated the rest of the National Assembly. The move of the new congregation was postponed twice by Yahya, who ultimately voided the election. The Awami League was banned and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was imprisoned in West Pakistan.

On March 26, 1971, East Pakistan declared its independence, whereupon it was occupied by Pakistani troops and a civil war ( Bangladesh War ) broke out. Ten million civilians fled to India and hundreds of thousands were killed. India supported Bangladesh and dispatched troops on December 3, 1971. After a fifteen-day war, the Third Indo-Pakistani War , Pakistani troops surrendered on December 16, 1971 and a ceasefire was declared on all fronts. An agreement signed in Shimla in July 1972 eased tensions. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was released and was able to return to Bangladesh. In 1974 Pakistan recognized the state of Bangladesh.

Ali Bhutto (1972–1977)

After the defeat of Pakistan, Yahya resigned as president in favor of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . In 1973 a new federal constitution was adopted. The office of president became purely symbolic, with most of the power being transferred to the prime minister. The National Assembly elected Bhutto Prime Minister with 108 out of 146 votes.

From 1972 onwards, Bhutto undertook a large-scale program to nationalize mainly industry and implemented an ambitious agrarian reform. On January 1, 1974, all banks were nationalized. Military leaders were removed from their political offices, but at the same time the defense budget was raised to 6 percent of GDP . Above all, entrepreneurs and religious leaders who criticized the socialist policy expressed dissatisfaction with the nationalization.

Nine opposition parties against the PPP came together under the name Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). Nonetheless, in the 1977 elections, the PPP became by far the strongest force with 150 out of 200 seats. The PNA protested violently against the result, which it said was due to electoral fraud and pressure from the PPP. Demonstrations and riots broke out across the country.

Faced with this blockade and on the grounds that no other solution was possible, General Muhammed Zia ul-Haq proclaimed martial law on July 5, 1977 .

The Zia ul-Haq military regime (1977–1988)

Bhutto was arrested and sentenced to death for the alleged murder of the father of a PPP apostate . After several months of promising elections, General Zia finally announced in 1979 that all political parties would be dissolved. Bhutto was hanged on April 4, 1979 . Sunni militias were also created to keep the Shiite minority encouraged by the Islamic revolution in check.

The Islamization Process

Zia initiated an Islamization of the country. In February 1979, a Sharia court was set up, the task of which is to check the conformity of laws with the prescriptions of the Koran and the Sunna when invoked by citizens or the government . On February 9, 1979, the so-called Hudood Ordinances were also issued, five presidential decrees that put the Islamic Hadd penalties into effect. Three changes to Pakistan's criminal law in 1980, 1982 and 1986 also made insulting the Prophet Mohammed , his wives and relatives, and desecrating the Koran a criminal offense. According to the last amendment to the Criminal Code of 1986, insulting the Prophet is punishable by the death penalty . The Islamization policy also aimed very strongly at excluding the Ahmadiyya from Islam. In 1984, for example, a law was passed prohibiting Ahmadis from calling their houses of prayer mosques , reciting the Islamic call to prayer or presenting themselves as Muslims.

Gradually, various taxes of religious origin were introduced, such as the zakat (zakāʰ, زَكَاة), a levy to be paid according to the Koran. In 1980 the Majlis-i-Shoora replaced the National Assembly, which lost its legislative functions and was only advisory. Arabic and Islamic studies became compulsory subjects in most universities. The media were also affected by these changes: news was broadcast in Arabic, moderators had to cover their heads, and adhān was sent to prayers . In the army, theologians obtained officer status in order to attract the best students from universities and religious institutions. These Zia initiatives have shaped the country for the long term. The zakat tax and many other obligations still exist.

The center and left parties founded the Movement for Restoration of Democracy (MRD) on February 6, 1981 on the initiative of the PPP . The MRD called for the abolition of martial law, new elections and a return to the 1973 constitution. In 1984, in a national referendum, Zia posed a complex legal question that amounted to whether it was desirable for Pakistan to remain an Islamic state, and if it agreed, Zia for should be appointed president for five years. The referendum was held in December 1984 and resulted in a majority vote, despite boycotts by the MRD.

Airplane hijacking in 1981

On March 2, 1981, a Boeing 720 operated by Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) with 137 passengers and a crew of 11 was hijacked from a domestic flight from Peshawar to Kabul in Soviet-occupied Afghanistan . The kidnappers demanded the release of 90 political prisoners held in Pakistan and the cessation of propaganda against the left-wing militant organization Al-Zulfiqar of the Pakistani People's Party (PPP), of which the kidnappers were also members. After several extensions of the ultimatum, the kidnappers back off their demands. On March 4, 19 women, 7 children and one man were released. Two days later, the passenger, Lieutenant Tariq Rahim, was shot dead. On March 9, the plane landed in Damascus , Syria. The Pakistani government under Mohammed Zia ul-Haq then flown 54 prisoners to Syria. On March 14, the kidnappers surrendered to the Syrian security forces.

Restoration of the constitutional order

With the 1985 elections - which were also boycotted by the MRD - a national assembly with legislative power was re-established. On March 20, President Zia-ul-Haq Muhammad Khan appointed Junejo Prime Minister. Despite his best efforts, Junejo failed to reform the state, given the influence of Zia, which he was trying to escape. The 8th Amendment to the Constitution, which was passed by the Senate on November 14, 1985, gave the President the right to appoint provincial governors and senior officials in addition to the Prime Minister. The president was able to put a vote of confidence in the prime minister at the assembly and appoint a transitional government. The President's most controversial right, however, was to dissolve the assembly. These changes turned the parliamentary state system into a presidential regime .

Differences of opinion grew between President Zia and Prime Minister Junejo on the Afghanistan issue. When the Soviet units occupied Afghanistan in 1979, Zia turned against communism, whereupon the country took in large numbers of Afghan refugees. The USA responded to the Soviet occupation with enormous financial and material support from the anti-communist Afghan government and the mujahideen , but also from Pakistan, which, as a better-armed state, achieved the status of a Most Favored Nation . However, the exodus of Afghan civilians posed difficulties for Pakistan, which still had an unstable political organization and a difficult economic situation. Junejo tried to unite the country by consulting with representatives from all political parties, including Benazir Bhutto , who succeeded her father as head of the PPP. Zia disapproved of this action and overthrew the Junejo government on the first pretext after attempting an investigation into the April 10, 1988 military fiasco at Camp Ojheri near Islamabad , in which large numbers of civilians were killed. General Zia exercised his constitutional right on the grounds that the Junejo government could no longer function in view of the chaos. In addition, all assemblies of the federal states and provinces were dissolved.

However, an unforeseen event upset politics: on August 17, 1988, the plane in which President Zia, American Ambassador Arnold Raphael, American General Herbert Wassom and 28 Pakistani officers were sitting crashed after visiting a military base. As foreseen by the constitution, the President of the Senate, Ghulam Ishaq Khan, became Zia's provisional successor and announced elections for November 1988.

An uncertain democracy (1988–1999)

Benazir Bhutto (1988)

In the November 1988 elections, the PPP emerged victorious without, however, gaining an absolute majority. With the support of the smaller parties, Benazir Bhutto was appointed Prime Minister and was the first woman in an Islamic state to take over this office. She was 35 years old at the time. Despite widespread popular support, Bhutto faced numerous difficulties: violent ethnic conflict in the provinces, ongoing problems related to the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, and tensions with India for which no diplomatic solution could be found. The military leaders were reluctant to support a regime that appeared corrupt and inefficient. The ruling coalition split, the smaller parties passed a vote of no confidence, and a conflict arose between President Ishaq Khan and the Prime Minister over the nomination of military leaders and senior officials. On August 6, 1990, President Bhutto and her ministers removed from office and dissolved the National Assembly and the Provincial Parliaments.

Nawaz Sharif (1990)

In the November 1990 elections, the coalition under Nawaz Sharif , Prime Minister of Punjab and leader of the Islamic Democratic Alliance (IJI), emerged victorious. The IJI obtained a three-fourths majority of the seats in the National Assembly and controlled the parliaments of four provinces. Sharif was supported by both the military and President Ishaq Khan. He launched a program to privatize and deregulate the economy and encourage foreign investors to revitalize the economy. The effects of this policy diminished, however, with the drastic cuts in American aid prescribed in the Pressler Amendment , which were aimed at preventing the continuation of the Pakistani nuclear program. At the same time as the government program to modernize the economy, a draft law to strengthen the Sharia was passed in May 1991. The ruling coalition failed to unite the conflicting goals of its parties, and allegations of corruption were raised against Sharif. He was removed from office in April 1993 by the president for poor administration, corruption and nepotism. The Supreme Court reversed this decision in May 1993 and reinstated Sharif. The crisis ended with the resignation of both politicians on July 18, 1993.

Return of Benazir Bhutto (1993)

Moin Qureshi , the former Vice President of the World Bank , led the interim government. In a short time it managed to implement several economic and social reforms, which were welcomed by the international community and also found broad domestic support.

On October 19, 1993, Benazir Bhutto was appointed Prime Minister by a new coalition government that was even more fragile than the previous one. The return of the PPP was strengthened by the election of Farooq Leghari , who was close to Bhutto, as president. However, the government was heavily attacked by the Nawaz Sharif party - which called for several general strikes - and by the insecure administrations in the provinces. In 1995, around 40 officers were arrested on charges of preparing an Islamic revolution. Bhutto achieved rapprochement with the US, but the continuation of the nuclear program reignited tensions with India. Bhutto was fired again in 1996 because the President accused her of corruption and poor economic policies.

Return of Nawaz Sharif (1997)

Nawaz Sharif's party won the February 1997 elections by a large majority, taking two-thirds of the seats in the assembly. Since March 1997 Sharif has tried to soften the 8th amendment to the constitution, which allows the president to overthrow the elected government and to appoint military personnel to high offices. The Supreme Court dismissed these plans and reopened an investigation into the Prime Minister for corruption. The reform ultimately led to the resignation of President Leghari in December 1997 and the recall of the President of the Supreme Court . Muhammad Rafiq Tarar , who was close to Sharif, was elected president in 1998. Political rights were increasingly restricted. A smear campaign against opponents of the regime began, the press was silenced, and well-known journalists were arrested and beaten. In May 1998 India carried out five underground nuclear weapons tests, to which Pakistan responded with a series of its own tests in Balochistan . The US imposed sanctions on both countries. In the summer of 1999 a new conflict broke out with India. Kashmiri fighters, supported by Pakistani troops , carried out a series of raids near the city of Kargil in the Indian-administered part of Kashmir. After several weeks of fighting (see Kargil War ), the fighters withdrew from India's territory in August under the control of India. On October 12, 1999, after Sharif tried to oust General Pervez Musharraf , the latter carried out a military coup against the Prime Minister and suspended the constitution. The term “martial law” is no longer used, but a new era began under military control.

The regime of Pervez Musharraf (1999-2008)

Musharraf with US President Bush

Nawaz Sharif was charged with treason and sentenced in April 2000 to life imprisonment. That sentence was eased in December and Sharif was exiled to Saudi Arabia . Musharraf named himself president in June 2001. After the terrorist attacks on September 11th in the USA by the Islamist terrorist movement Al-Qaeda, the USA lifted the sanctions against Pakistan and called on the government to fight against Osama bin Laden and the Afghan Taliban regime. Pakistan's consent led to riots that were relentlessly fought, particularly along the Afghan border, where large numbers of refugees live. In January 2002, Musharraf criticized religious extremism and its impact on Pakistani society; he decided not to tolerate terrorist groups any longer. A plebiscite in April 2002 confirmed his five-year term in office, although the lawful process of the election was questioned. In August 2002, Musharraf passed around 30 amendments to the constitution, which strengthened his position of power and weakened the opposition. The October 2002 elections were a success for Benazir Bhutto; the PMLQ ( Pakistan Muslim League-Qaid ), which supported Musharraf, came second, while an Islamist, anti-American coalition followed shortly after. Several attacks were carried out on Musharraf in December. Pakistan's economy, particularly in the textile industry, continues to suffer from strained international relations and ongoing political instability.

Current situation

Unlike its Indian neighbor, Pakistan has never succeeded in building a stable democracy. Since the split in 1947, the military oligarchy has regularly asserted its interests, often in an obscure manner and with an Islamist tendency - unless it is openly supported, as was the case during the Zia regime.

Cashmere and nuclear armaments

The differences of opinion between Pakistan and India have existed since the separation. India rejects a local referendum and claims all of Kashmir for itself. Pakistan is accused of waging a "clandestinely" war using Islamist fighters who are supported by the secret service , Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI).

Two of the three wars between the two states were over the Kashmir issue. The nuclear armament of both states is largely due to this point of contention. In addition to being used as a deterrent, the nuclear arms race of the two states is also seen as a major threat to the subcontinent and the balance in the world. Between December 2001 and October 2002, when India relocated additional troops to the Pakistani border after attacks on parliament in New Delhi , an escalation was barely prevented.

In October 2002, free elections were held for the first time in Jammu and Kashmir , from which the winners emerged from the parties advocating greater autonomy. The turnout was only 44 percent, however, which sparked discussions about the benefits of the election. On November 23, 2003, Pakistan announced a unilateral ceasefire along the Line of Control , which was immediately accepted by India. In December 2003, Pervez Musharraf expressed his willingness to drop one of Pakistan's oldest demands, the holding of a referendum, provided that this would facilitate a peaceful solution to the conflict. India said in retrospect that there was indeed a problem with Kashmiri territory - which could mean that India is willing to admit that Kashmir is not necessarily an irrevocable part of national territory.

Afghanistan, Al-Qaeda and Islamism

With the attacks of September 11, 2001 in the USA, Pakistan's position in the world changed radically. It was now in the focus of expectations and benefited from financial aid on an unprecedented scale. For a country with 43 percent of its public spending used to pay off national debt, cooperation with the US and against al-Qaida and the Taliban was impossible to refuse, even though the Taliban regime once benefited from ample support from Pakistan. Although Pakistan is considered by many observers to be one of the countries of origin of Islamist terrorism, since January 2002 Pervez Musharraf has voiced his concerns about a partial revision of Islamic elements in the constitution. As an Islamic republic, Pakistan was and is torn between its historically well-founded tolerance of Islamic fundamentalism and the need to show itself as an ally of the USA and to take action against Al-Qaeda. This problem also emerged during the 2007 elections , when Pervez Musharraf first declared a state of emergency and in the end had to give in to pressure from the USA.

In 2005, Pakistan was granted observer status with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), whose member states carried out joint anti-terrorism military maneuvers in 2005, 2007 and 2009.

On May 14, 2011, members of the Pakistani Parliament passed a resolution condemning the killing of Osama bin Laden a few days earlier by a command unit of the American military in Abbottabad as a breach of the country's sovereignty and calling for an end to drone attacks on extremists in the border area Afghanistan reviewed relations with the US and warned Pakistan could cut supply routes for US troops in Afghanistan .

Web links

Commons : History of Pakistan - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

↑ ^a ^b ^c - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved November 6, 2018 .
^ ^A ^b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 296.
^ ^A ^b ^c June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , pp. 221-222.
↑ ^a ^b Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 411.
^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 411.
^ Robin Morgan: Sisterhood is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology. New York: Anchor Press / Doubleday, 1984, p. 525.
^ Aqil Shah: Getting the Military out of Pakistani Politics . In: Council on Foreign Relations (Ed.): Foreign Affairs . tape 90 , no. 3 (May / June). New York 2011, p. 71 (English).
↑ See Rudolph Peters: Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law. Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-first Century. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005. pp. 155 f.
↑ See Peters 158.
↑ Schoresch Davoodi & Adama Sow: The Political Crisis of Pakistan in 2007 ( Memento of February 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) - EPU Research Papers: Issue 08/07, Stadtschlaining 2007
↑ Pakistan's parliament condemns US mission to kill bin Laden
↑ Pakistan: Parliament threatens the USA in further drone attacks

[ipu-813482-1] - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved November 6, 2018 .

[Martin296-2] A ^b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 296.

[Hannam221222-3] A ^b ^c June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , pp. 221-222.

[Adams411-4] Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 411.

[Adams412-5] Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 411.

[6] Robin Morgan: Sisterhood is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology. New York: Anchor Press / Doubleday, 1984, p. 525.

[7] Aqil Shah: Getting the Military out of Pakistani Politics . In: Council on Foreign Relations (Ed.): Foreign Affairs . tape 90 , no. 3 (May / June). New York 2011, p. 71 (English).

[8] See Rudolph Peters: Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law. Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-first Century. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005. pp. 155 f.

[9] See Peters 158.

[10] Schoresch Davoodi & Adama Sow: The Political Crisis of Pakistan in 2007 ( Memento of February 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) - EPU Research Papers: Issue 08/07, Stadtschlaining 2007

[11] Pakistan's parliament condemns US mission to kill bin Laden

[12] Pakistan: Parliament threatens the USA in further drone attacks