History of Jordan

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The coat of arms of Jordan

The history of Jordan can be traced back to the beginning of continuous human settlement around 10,000 BC. To understand. Semitic peoples lived in the area of ​​what is now the Kingdom of Jordan east of the Jordan . In the Late Bronze Age from approx. 1200 BC. The Semitic peoples of the Ammonites , Moabites and Edomites formed the first state-like structures east of the Jordan. The first cities emerged. In the 8th century BC The area came under the rule of the Assyrians . From the 6th century onwards, the Babylonians and Persians extended their empires to the area east of the Jordan. From the 5th century the Nabataeans immigrated from the south . Their empire was a high culture. The Greco-Macedonian Ptolemies take over after the victory of the Greeks over the Persians in 332 BC. The rule in the Nabatean Empire. Later the area came under the rule of the Seleucids . The splendid cities of Gerasa , Pella and Gadera emerged . The League of the Decapolis was established in 63 BC. Under the protection of Rome. The Nabataeans established a kingdom under Roman protection with the capital Petra . Under the Roman Emperor Trajan , the Roman province of Arabia Petrae was formed in 106 AD. The Arab nomad people of the Bedouins attacked the Roman province several times. After the division of the empire in AD 395, the province came to the Byzantine Empire . After the Battle of Jarmuk in 636, the East Bank fell to the Arab-Islamic Empire. The Arabs settled the East Bank and Islam spread. The Christian crusaders invaded the East Bank from 1107. From 1250 to 1516 the area belonged to the Mamluk Empire as part of the province of Syria . From 1517 to 1918 it was part of the Ottoman Empire . After the First World War , the British League of Nations Palestine was founded in 1920, which also included the area east of the Jordan. In 1923 the East Bank was formed as the British League of Nations Mandate Transjordan. It was an emirate under the Hashemite dynasty .

In 1946 it gained independence as the Kingdom of Transjordan. It signed a military pact with Great Britain in 1948. From 1948 to 1949 the state participated in the war of the other Arab states against Israel , which was proclaimed on May 14, 1948 . Transjordan gained the West Bank and East Jerusalem, the Arab states lost the war and over 400,000 Arab refugees from Palestine were taken into Jordan. In April 1950, Jordan annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem and was renamed the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. After the Suez crisis in October / November 1956, the USA became Jordan's main ally. In the Six Day War against Israel in June 1967, Jordan lost control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Another 400,000 Palestinian refugees were taken into Jordan. In a civil war in September 1970, the Jordanian army drove the PLO out of the country. From August 1988, Jordan finally relinquished its claim to the West Bank and East Jerusalem. In 1994 Jordan and Israel signed a peace treaty.

Prehistory and early history

According to the latest archaeological finds, continuous human habitation has been demonstrated in parts of present-day Jordan for over 10,000 years since the Mesolithic . Nomadic and sedentary ways of life mostly co-existed.

In the Late Bronze Age from approx. 1200 BC. BC the Ammonites , Moabites and Edomites created the first state-like structures east of the Jordan . They fought against the Israelite tribes , some of which also invaded the East Bank, as well as among themselves. During this time, cities emerged that still exist today, including today's Jordanian capital Amman . These tribes belonged to the Semitic peoples. The Ammonites also settled east of the Jordan in the area of ​​the Jordanian capital Amman. They believed in a religion with multiple gods and were related to the Israelites. 1030 BC They founded their state. King David subjugated the Ammonites, who also adopted the Israeli religion. After the division of the Kingdom of Israel after King Solomon's death, Ammon fell to the Northern Kingdom of Israel. The tribe of the Ammonites split off from the northern kingdom. They reintroduced a polytheistic religion. He remained until the 2nd century BC. Exist.

The kingdom of Moab lay in Palestine and also partly east of the Jordan. It was also a Semitic one. In the 9th century BC The state of Moab came into being. He came under Assyrian tributary sovereignty. The Moabites introduced a polytheistic religion.

The Edomites settled on both sides of the Jordan in the Jordan Depression. They were considered to be the descendants of Esau. First they formed in the 12th century BC. A state. They were subjugated by the Israelites under King David and later came to the southern kingdom of Judah. 850 BC Edom split off from the Kingdom of Judah and declared itself a kingdom. The Edomites introduced a new religion with the main god Qaus and several gods. The Kingdom of Edom came under Assyrian rule and became a tribute state.

Antiquity

In the 8th century BC The East Bank fell under the control of the Assyrians . After the destruction of the Assyrian Empire by the Babylonians, the Babylonians after the conquest of Judas and Israel and the conquest of Jerusalem in 587 BC BC also the East Bank under their power. The Babylonians introduced their religion and their society with slaves. 539 BC The Persians conquered Babylon, destroyed the Babylonian Empire and brought the provinces east of the Jordan under their control. They allowed the subjugated peoples to practice their religion. Around 550 BC The Nabateans immigrated from the south into the country east of the Jordan, which at times expanded to Syria, but whose main settlement area remained limited to Petra , southern Jordan and parts of what is now southern Israel and what is now north-west Saudi Arabia. They were a nomadic Arab people. The religion knew several gods, Dushara was the main god, al-Uzza the main goddess. As caravan traders, the Nabataeans controlled trade routes in the desert and to Arabia. They traded in frankincense, myrrh and other chosen spices which they brought to the sea on trade routes. The Nabataeans extracted tar from the Dead Sea. This was used for embalming. The Nabataeans drove out the Edmites who migrated to Palestine. Later they built rock houses with the center in Petra. A high culture emerged. After Alexander's conquest of Tire and his victory over the Persians in 332 BC. First the Ptolemies , then the Seleucids, took power. The Greek culture and Hellenistic influences spread. Magnificent cities such as Gerasa (Jerash), Pella (Tabaqat Fahl) and Gadara emerged under the Seleucid rule . The Nabataeans were under the sovereignty of the Persians, Ptolemies and the Seleucids.

The kingdom of the Nabataeans

At first the settlement area of ​​the Nabateans was under the suzerainty of the Ptolemies and later the Seleucids. Around 150 BC The Nabataeans united to form a kingdom that stretched from the Sinai Peninsula to northern Arabia. The first king was Aretas I. Under his rule the Nabataeans were able to free themselves from Seleucid suzerainty. 85 BC They conquered Damascus. They introduced an irrigation system in the desert that could irrigate agricultural land. After the advance of the Romans under Pompey in 63 BC. After Palestine, the 10 cities of the Decapolis joined together in a league that was subject to Roman protection. The Nabataeans became vassals of the Roman Empire . The Nabataean king Aretas IV was able to maintain the unity of his empire and the Romans left him in office.

Roman province of Arabia Petraea

After the Roman annexation of the Nabatean Empire with the capital Petra, Emperor Trajan established the province of Arabia Petraea in 106 . First Arab Bedouins, nomads invaded the province. After the expulsion of the Jews from Palestine, the Romans settled Arabs in Palestine.

Late antiquity

In late antiquity, the area east of the Jordan served the Roman Empire as a buffer zone against attacks by the Bedouins . The Romans fended off attacks by the Bedouins. During the Byzantine era , the region was under the influence of the Ghassanids . The Christian Byzantine emperors promoted the Christianization of the Nabatean population. Christianity became the state religion.

Arab-Islamic rule

After the Battle of Jarmuk in 636, Eastern Jordan fell under the rule of Islam , initially under the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus , and from 750 the Abbasids in Baghdad . The Umayyads first introduced the caliphate in Mecca. The caliph was the spiritual and state head. The Bedouin population was converted to Islam. Several desert castles from the Abbasid era have survived , most of them east of the capital Amman. The Sunni denomination prevailed in the East Bank. Arabs also settled down. Arab merchants controlled the trade routes. The Abbasids were Shiites under Persian influence. From 1107 the Christian crusaders penetrated from Jerusalem into the East Bank. Ruins of crusader castles , which were built by the crusaders to ward off Bedouin attacks and to monitor the trade and pilgrimage routes from Damascus to Arabia, can be found in Montreal , on what is now the Egyptian Pharaoh Island near Aqaba and in Kerak . With the decline of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem , the East Bank came back under Islamic rule.

Mamluk rule

From 1250 to 1516, the area belonged to the Mameluks , who had their center in Egypt, as part of the province of Syria .

Under Ottoman rule

Then it was part of the Ottoman Empire of the Turks until 1918 . During this time, the region barely developed, which is also indicated by the sparse structures from this time. The new center was Anatolia and Asia Minor. The Ottomans also established a caliphate in Istanbul, formerly Constantinople. This only changed at the end of the 19th century when soldiers of the Ottoman army under the direction of the German engineer Heinrich August Meißner built the Hejaz Railway from Damascus to Medina .

Modern Jordan

The present Jordanian state developed as a result of the European colonial policy of the 19th and 20th centuries. The two main actors Great Britain and France pushed back the weakened Ottoman Empire more and more in the 19th century and expanded their political influence in the Levant and Mesopotamia . An essential tactic was to forge alliances with dissatisfied local leaders and social groups and thus to instrumentalize them for one's own interests.

During the First World War, England assured the Hashemite Sherif Hussein of Mecca , the father of the later first king of Jordan, a kingdom of his own if he took action against the Ottomans together with the British. The Arab uprising began in 1916 and was led by the British secret service agent TE Lawrence . At the same time, Great Britain and France also secretly agreed in 1915 in the so-called Sykes-Picot Agreement to partition the Middle East after the end of the World War and the expected collapse of the Ottoman Empire. On January 6, 1919, Faisal and the President of the Zionist World Congress Chaim Weizmann concluded an agreement on cooperation in the establishment of an Arab state in Palestine and the establishment of a Jewish home in Palestine, the Weizmann-Faisal Agreement . The area east of the Jordan fell as part of the League of Nations mandate for Palestine under British administration at the Sanremo Conference in 1920. In 1921 Great Britain installed the son of the Sherif of Mecca, Abdullah Ibn al-Hussein, as emir of Transjordan. He got through that the National Jewish Homestead should be built just west of the Jordan. The British mandate administration agreed.

Emirate of Transjordan as a British League of Nations mandate

On March 25, 1923, the mandate power Great Britain declared Transjordan to be an independent emirate under British mandate administration of the League of Nations and separated it from the mandate of Palestine. The Arab Legion was set up under the leadership of British officers with Jordanian soldiers. General John Glubb led the Arab Legion since 1931. Emir Abdullah led a pro-British policy. During the Second World War , the Arab Legion fought on the side of Great Britain against the Axis powers German Empire and Italy. Transjordan was one of the founding states of the Arab League in March 1945.

Jordan independence

On May 22, 1946, Transjordan gained independence from the mandate power of Great Britain. Abdullah assumed the title of king on May 25 and the state was called the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. The Jordanian army remained under British control. In 1948 Great Britain and Transjordan signed a military pact. The British troops stayed for a subsidy. Transjordan took part in the 1st Arab-Israeli War , May 1948-1949. The Jordanian army received British arms deliveries. Together with the other Arab armies of Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq and Arab militants in Palestine, the Jordanian army fought against the state of Israel, which was proclaimed on May 14, 1948, with the new army that was supported by the USA, France and the USSR. Jordanian troops occupied the West Bank and East Jerusalem with the Old City. In January 1949 a final ceasefire was agreed on the Israeli-Jordanian front. On April 3, 1949, representatives of Israel and Transjordan signed the armistice agreement. The Jordanian Army remained stationed in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. During and after the war, more than 400,000 Arabs from Palestine fled the new state of Israel to the Jordanian-controlled West Bank and Transjordan.

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

On April 24, 1950, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan was proclaimed, annexing the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Pro-Jordanian Palestinian politicians, notables, approved the annexation of the Jordanian-occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem. Nationalist Palestinian forces announced their opposition to the annexation to the Palestinian Territories . The Palestine refugees and Palestinians were given Jordanian citizenship. With the West Bank, Jordan had agricultural resources and a developed urban center. In July 1951, King Abdullah I was assassinated in East Jerusalem because of his pro-Israel stance. His son Talal became the new king. A new constitution was passed on January 8, 1952: Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The king has extensive powers. Due to illness, King Talal abdicated in September 1952 in favor of his then underage son Hussein bin Talal. He ascended the throne on May 2, 1953 as Hussein I. There were border incidents on the Israeli-Jordanian border after attacks by Palestinian rioters on Israeli defensive villages. Israeli troops advanced into Jordanian territory. During the Suez Crisis in November 1956, Palestinians in particular rose up against pro-Western and pro-British policies. On November 4, 1956, General Glubb Pasha was dismissed and the military pact with Great Britain was terminated. The British troops withdrew from Jordan. King Hussein I approached the USA. When anti-monarchist leftists and nationalists won a majority in the Jordanian parliamentary elections, King Hussein I had parliament dissolved. There have been no parliamentary elections since 1957. On February 14, 1958, the kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan merged to form the Arab Federation , after Egypt merged under Nasser and Syria under Arab socialist regimes to form the United Arab Republic VAR in February 1958 . After the revolution in Iraq on July 14, 1958, the Arab Federation was dissolved on July 15, 1958. King Hussein I sought support from loyal Jordanian extended families and, above all, from the Bedouin tribes. Nationalists and anti-monarchist Palestinian forces fought against the Hashimite monarchy and carried out several assassinations against King Hussein I. He survived them. Since 1965, Palestinian militants attacked Israeli positions from Jordan. Israeli troops invaded the West Bank in retaliation. On August 10, 1965, Saudi Arabia and Jordan signed an agreement to swap territory. Jordan received an area at Aqaba that was important as a coastal area and areas in the desert and ceded desert areas to Saudi Arabia. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a dispute over the Jordan River between Israel, Syria and Jordan. Israel diverted the Jordan water in the 1960s. There were protests from the Arab states. During the Six Day War from June 5, 1967, Jordan takes part in the war against Israel on the side of the Arab states. King Hussein declared martial law on Jordan. On June 5, the Israeli Air Force destroyed the Jordanian Air Force. Israeli ground forces advanced into the old city of Jerusalem and captured East Jerusalem on June 5 after heavy resistance from the Jordanian army and Palestinian fighters. By June 7, they occupied the entire West Bank. A truce was signed. Iraqi troops were stationed in Jordan east of the Jordan. Around 400,000 Palestinians fled to Jordan. The West Bank and East Jerusalem came under Israeli occupation. With that, Jordan lost the economically important West Bank. The prisoners of war were exchanged. Thereafter, tensions between the Jordanian monarchy and the Palestinian terrorist groups and resistance movements increased. After the merger of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) with Al-Fatah under Yasser Arafat in February 1969, the PLO headquarters was opened in Amman. The PLO carried out military operations against Israel from Jordan. Since 1968 Israeli troops carried out retaliatory actions against the PLO in Jordan. The PLO established a state within a state in Jordan. In September 1970, the Marxist PFLP hijacked several planes for Jordan. On September 16, 1970, the PLO proclaimed the people's government in Irbid. King Hussein I then ordered the army to be used against the PLO. A civil war broke out in Jordan on September 17, Black September (uprising) . The Jordanian army cracked down on the PLO in the capital Amman and various parts of the country. The first offensive failed. The Syrian army intervened on the side of the PLO in the civil war and advanced into Jordan on September 20. The Iraqi troops stationed in Jordan were neutral. On September 22nd, the Jordanian Air Force attacked the Syrian forces with powerful air strikes. The Jordanian army was able to achieve success. The Syrian troops withdrew on September 23. The Jordanian army took action against the PLO. An armistice was signed on September 27, 1970. The PLO withdrew from Jordan. Numerous Palestinian resistance fighters were arrested. In January 1971 Prime Minister Wasfi at-Tall was assassinated by Black September (terrorist organization) . In 1971 the last Palestinian resistance cells in Jordan were smashed. In 1972 King Hussein proposed the establishment of a Jordanian-Palestinian federation consisting of Jordan, the West Bank with East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip. Both the Arab League and the PLO and the Israeli government rejected this proposal. During the Yom Kippur War 6. – 25. In October 1973 a Jordanian brigade fought on the Golan Heights in Syria. After the war, the Iraqi troops withdrew from Jordan. The Jordanian associations withdrew from Syria. At the Geneva Middle East Conference on 21./22. December 1973, Egypt and Jordan took part as representatives of the Arab states as well as Israel and as mediator UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim and the foreign ministers of the USA, Henry Kissinger and the USSR, Andrei Gromyko . The conference was adjourned without result. Syria did not take part because the PLO was not recognized as a negotiating partner.

After the PLO was recognized as the representative of the Palestinians in the Arab League in October 1974, King Hussein I recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians on November 4, 1974, and the PLO refrained from taking any action from Jordan. A comprehensive settlement program for East Jordan was adopted. Jordan had no oil deposits and few mineral resources, including phosphate deposits. Because of the desert there was hardly any profitable agriculture. Jordan supported the PLO's admission to the UN as an observer in November 1974. On January 18, 1977, the EC and Jordan concluded an association agreement. Jordan rejected the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty of March 26, 1979 and broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt after the meeting of the Arab League with the decision to suspend Egypt's membership in March 1979. Jordan approached Iraq under the Saddam Hussein regime and supported the neighboring state in the war against Iran 1980–1988. In August 1982, PLO fighters from Beirut in Lebanon were evacuated to Jordan under the supervision of the multinational peacekeeping force. The Jordanian government approved the Reagan Plan, which provided for the establishment of a Jordanian-Palestinian federation covering Jordan, West Bank, East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip. If there is a peace treaty, the Israeli army should withdraw. Only the Egyptian government supported this plan. The Israeli government rejected it. At the Fez summit of the Arab League from September 6 to 9, 1982, all member states except Libya approved the Fez Middle East Peace Plan. This provided for the establishment of an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip. The Arab states, including, were ready to begin peace negotiations with Israel and recognize Israel if Israel recognized the Arab states and the PLO. Against Israel's right to exist, Israel's withdrawal from the occupied territories should be agreed in a peace treaty. The Israeli government rejected this plan. In January 1984, for the first time since November 1974, a Jordanian parliament appointed by King Hussein I met without the Palestinian MPs from the West Bank and East Jerusalem. On February 11, 1985, Jordan and the PLO signed an agreement to form a Jordanian-Palestinian confederation. A Jordanian-Palestinian delegation should be formed to begin peace negotiations with Israel. On June 25, 1985, the Jordan-Palestinian delegation was formed with Palestinian representatives who are close to the PLO. The Israeli government refused to negotiate with this delegation on October 22, 1985. On February 19, 1986, King Hussein I of Jordan terminated the agreement with the PLO. On July 31, 1988, King Hussein I ended Jordan's last ties with the West Bank and East Jerusalem. After Egypt's suspension of membership in the Arab League was lifted in May 1989, Jordan resumed diplomatic relations with Egypt. In 1989 King Hussein I repealed martial law, which had been in force since 1967, and on November 8th the first parliamentary elections since 1957 took place, to which no parties were allowed. The Islamic candidates received 40%. During the Gulf War after the occupation of Kuwait by Iraqi troops in August 1990 of the Western-Arab alliance against Iraq January 16 to February 1991, Jordan remained neutral. Jordan approached the PLO again. At the Madrid Peace Conference, mediated by the USA, the Soviet Union and the EC, October 30 to November 2, 1991, extensive peace negotiations began between Israel, a Jordanian-Palestinian delegation, Syria and Lebanon. The Jordanian-Palestinian delegation consisted of Palestinians without open ties to the PLO. But they informed the PLO about the course of the talks. The main problems of the Middle East conflict were negotiated in working groups from November 3, 1991. After the electoral and party laws were passed in 1993, parties were again allowed to stand for election on November 8, 1993. In July 1994, during the peace negotiations between Jordan and Israel, mediated by the USA, the Washington Declaration was agreed. On October 26, 1994, with the mediation of the United States, Israel and Jordan signed the peace treaty: Both states ended the state of war. The limit was set. A settlement should later be agreed between the Palestinian Territories and Jordan. Both states established diplomatic and trade relations. After the death of King Hussein I after a long illness in February 1999, his son Abdullah II became king. Under his leadership, Jordan intensified its relations with the US, Israel and the EU. In the autumn of 2001, King Abdullah II postponed the parliamentary elections for fear of the anti-American population. In 2003, Jordan actively participated in the US-British war against Iraq. Numerous Jordanians were against the Gulf War. A terrorist attack on hotels in Amman on November 10, 2005 killed 56 people. There were numerous irregularities in the parliamentary elections in 2007 and 2010, which were criticized by international human rights organizations. However, King Abdullah II was able to make up for the lack of political support through his stability policy and economic successes. During the Arab Spring after the fall of the regime in Tunisia in January 2011, Egypt in February and the start of the civil war in Syria after protests against the Assad regime and the outbreak of the civil war in Libya in March 2011, protests broke out in 2011/12 Jordan Protests in Jordan from 2011 . Numerous Syrians have fled to Jordan since 2011.

Angela Merkel visited the country in 2018 .

See also

History of the Arab population in Palestine

literature

• Der Volks-Ploetz, Verlag Ploetz Freiburg Würzburg, 5th updated edition 1991, ISBN 3-87640-351-0
• Der Große Ploetz, Verlag Herder GmbH & Co. KG Licensed edition for Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen, 35th edition 2008 ISBN 978-3525-32008-2

Web links

Commons : History of Jordan  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

• Society for international cooperation

Individual evidence

1. ^ German Society for International Cooperation, Jordan portal.
2. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Palestine pp. 44–46.
3. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Assyrische Großreich and Chaldäerreich p. 37.
4. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Assyrisches Großreich und Chaldäerreich p. 37.
5. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Perserreich (Iran) p. 48.
6. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Alexander the Great and the Diadoch Fights p. 77, the Seleucids in Syria and Western Asia p. 84.
7. ^ GIZ, Jordan portal.
8. ^ The great Ploetz, Arabia p. 117
9. ^ GIZ, Jordan portal.
10. ↑ The great Ploetz, Syria, p. 320
11. ↑ The great Ploetz, Arabien, Nordarabien p. 330
12. ^ The great Ploetz, South Arabia, p. 332
13. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Rome and the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd Century, The Perfection of the Monarchy, the Adoptive Emperors (96–192) p. 130.
14. ↑ The great Ploetz, South Arabia p. 332
15. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Die christliche Monarchie (325–476) p. 152, Byzantinisches Reich (up to 843) p. 194.
16. ↑ The great Ploetz, Das late Byzantinische Reich (324 - 641), pp. 285 ff.
17. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Arab-Islamic World Empire pp. 288–291.
18. ↑ The great Ploetz, Die Islamische Welt bis approx. 1500, The emergence of Islams (around 570 - 661), p. 657 ff
19. ↑ The great Ploetz, Das Kalifenreich (661-1258), p. 659 ff
20. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, die Kreuzzüge p. 199–201.
21. ^ GIZ, Jordan portal.
22. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Egypt and North West Africa, p. 292.
23. ↑ The great Ploetz, Die Mamluken (1250 - 1534) p. 668 f.
24. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Ottoman Empire p. 440.
25. ↑ The great Ploetz, The Ottoman Empire in the Modern Age, p. 1170ff
26. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Palestine / Israel p. 777, Arabian states p. 763.
27. ^ The great Ploetz, The Arab Provinces of the Ottoman Empire up to the Peace of Lausanne (1923), pp. 1185 ff
28. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Transjordania / Jordan, p. 770.
29. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Arabian States p. 763.
30. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Transjordania / Jordan, p. 770.
31. ↑ Volks-Ploetz; Transjordan / Jordan p. 771.
32. ^ The great Ploetz, Jordan (Transjordan) since 1946, p. 1654
33. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Jordan, p. 771.
34. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Jordan p. 771, Irak p. 766.
35. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, West European Unification p. 590.
36. ↑ Volks-Ploetz, Jordan, pp. 771–772.
37. ↑ Compact Ploetz, Jordan since 1945, p. 535.
38. ^ The great Ploetz, Jordan (Transjordan) since 1946, p. 1654 ff