History of Vietnam

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The history of Vietnam began with the first in the middle of the 3rd century BC. Empire Au Lac established in the delta of the Red River . This developed, at times as an independent state structure ruled by Vietnamese dynasties, at times as a Chinese province, at times as a colony , to today's Vietnam .

antiquity

Prehistoric cultures of Vietnam
Old Stone Age
Dieu culture approx. 30,000 BC Chr.
Sơn Vi culture 20,000–12,000 BC Chr.
Mesolithic
Hòa Bình culture 12,000-10,000 BC Chr.
Neolithic
Bắc-Sơn culture 9,000-5,000 BC Chr.
Quỳnh Văn culture 3,000–1 BC Chr.
Đa Bút culture 4,000-1,700 BC Chr.
Bronze age
Phùng Nguyên culture 2,000-1,500 BC Chr.
Đồng-Đậu culture 1,500–1,000 BC Chr.
Gò-Mun culture 1,000–700 BC Chr.
Đông-Sơn culture 800 BC Chr. – 200 AD
Iron age
Sa Huỳnh culture 500 BC Chr. – 100 AD
Óc-Eo culture A.D. 1-630
Van Lang - 500 BC Chr.
Indian influence:
Ganesha in the Cham Museum in Da Nang

The earliest traces of human activity in what is now Vietnam are probably 300,000 to 500,000 years old. The oldest known culture in the region is the more than 30,000 year old Dieu culture . The main location for their artifacts is the eponymous Dieu cave in the province of Hòa Bình south of Hanoi. From around 16,000 BC. The Hoa Binh culture existed, starting from the same region, and its stone tools were found in the entire continental Southeast Asia. The last Paleolithic culture in the region was the Bacson culture (approx. 10,000 BC). In addition to stone tools, ceramics were also widespread here. From around 3000 BC. The cultivation of rice for irrigation was known.

The Bronze Age is documented by cultures such as Go Mun and Dong Dau. The Iron Age began here around 500 BC. BC with the Sa Huynh culture , whose members, presumably coming from the islands of what is now Indonesia, settled on the coasts and offshore islands. The Dong Nai culture was found in the south. At the same time, the Dong Son culture existed in the Red River delta , known for its richly decorated bronze drums. From this culture emerged in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The first known kingdom of the Việt ( chin.越 Yuè), more precisely the Lạc Việt , Văn Lang . This empire comprised most of what is now North Vietnam. In the 3rd century BC U Việt immigrated from what is now southern China and mingled with the local Lạc Việt. In 258 BC . Founded BC Thuc Phan , the Kingdom of Âu Lạc (from the union of Âu Việt and Lạc Việt) and declared himself king to Dương Vương.

At Dương Vương was 208 BC. After a long war with the Qín, defeated by the Qín general 赵佗 / 趙佗 Zhào Tuó (Vietnamese: Triệu Đà). Triệu Đà proclaimed himself king; when Qín was conquered by the Hàn, he named his kingdom Nam Việt (南越, Nányuè = Südviệt or Südyuè ), took the name Vũ Vương (Chinese 武王, Wǔ Wáng) and founded the Triệu dynasty.

In 111 BC Nam Việt was conquered by Hàn W Hdì's troops and incorporated into the Chinese Empire as a prefecture (郡 jùn (quận)) 交趾 Jiāozhǐ (Giao Chỉ). Under Chinese rule, technical achievements in rice cultivation, livestock husbandry and construction were adopted by the Chinese. There were numerous uprisings against Chinese rule and short periods of independence. The latter were each ended by the Chinese military power. In 679 the province was renamed Annam ( peaceful south ).

In southern and central Vietnam, the Champa kingdom was established at the end of the 2nd century AD . In the 2nd century AD, further south, in the area of ​​the Mekong Delta, some smaller political units united to form Funan , which is considered to be the forerunner of the later Kambuja, the Khmer empire. Funan is considered to be the oldest recorded state in Southeast Asia. Champa and Funan were both strongly influenced by Indian influences, especially in terms of culture (writing, calendar, architecture ...) and religion (Hinduism, Buddhism). As a result, there were often armed conflicts between the Khmer, Cham and Annam - also with changing allies - and pirates along the coast.

Early dynasties

Nam tien (1069 to 1757)

In 907, the Tang Dynasty collapsed in China . Annam used the weak phase to evade Chinese power. The first Vietnamese state was established in 938 under the strategist Ngô Quyền after the battle of the Bạch Đằng River in North Vietnam. Until 968 the state was consolidated under Đinh Bộ Lĩnh ; from 968 to 1009 several short-lived dynasties followed.

From 1010 to 1225 the state of Dai Viet was ruled by the Ly dynasty , whose founder was Lý Thái Tổ . Under the Ly, the state successfully defended itself against the Chinese under the Song , against the Khmer and Cham . From the middle of the 11th century, the Cham made their first territorial gains. Under the Ly, the state was strengthened according to the Chinese model; Power structures and organization were consolidated and adapted to Vietnamese needs.

In 1225 the Ly fell due to unrest. The Trần dynasty took power. Under General Trần HưngĐạo, in alliance with the Cham, she successfully defended the country against the Mongolian Yuan dynasty of Kublai Khan . From 1400 to 1407 the Ho dynasty replaced the Tran, and there was brief Chinese rule under the Ming . The Ming consciously tried to sinize Vietnam further , for example the Vietnamese literary heritage was systematically destroyed.

In 1427, Le Loi founded the Lê dynasty , which ruled until 1789. Vietnamese traditions were re-emphasized among the Le; the Confucianism remained a dominant pillar of the state organization. Champa was conquered under the Le and Vietnamese power extended to the Mekong . From the end of the 14th century, the power of the royal family eroded. The beneficiaries were influential merchant families ( above all the Trinh and Nguyen ) and the Portuguese, who had been present since 1516. The Vietnamese royal family had to tolerate numerous Jesuits and Franciscans in the country. The European missionaries also brought new technologies into the country for their religion. For example, the Jesuit Alexandre de Rhodes developed the Vietnamese script Quốc ngữ , which is still in use today and is based on the Latin letters .

In 1771 the Tây-Sơn rebellion broke out. With French help, Prince Nguyễn Phúc Ánh from the influential Nguyễn merchant family emerged victorious from the following civil war around 1802 . He proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long , moved the capital of the country to Huế and named the country Vietnam for the first time . Under his rule and with French advice, major infrastructure and defense projects were tackled, which emptied the state treasury. The territory of the empire was expanded; from 1834 parts of what is now Cambodia belonged to Vietnam as the province of Tran-tay-thanh.

French colonial rule

Map of the region around 1888

From the middle of the 19th century, the French increased their pressure on the Nguyễn emperors . The impoverished population rioted against French missionaries and local Christians ( Andreas Dung-Lac and companions). In September 1858, French gunboats attacked the port of Da Nang and the Mekong Delta. Shortly afterwards, gunboats also appeared on the Perfume River , which flows through the then capital Huế . From 1862 Vietnam had to cede territories to the French, until 1883 the three protectorates Annam , Cochin-China and Tonkin were founded; the Vietnamese emperor was forced to recognize them. Vietnam was thus under French colonial rule .

In the period that followed, Vietnamese students and intellectuals in Europe, especially France, came into contact with ideas of nationalism and communism . From 1905 Vietnamese nationalist freedom fighters around Phan Bội Châu (1868-1940) and Cuong De were active in Japan and southern China. The later most important of them was Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969), who in 1929 united the communist parties active in Annam, Cochin-China and Tonkin into a single party. The party was decimated and weakened in 1930 after the failed Yen Bai uprising and the execution of many of its members.

In 1938, for the first time since 1879, Georges Catroux was reinstated as a military governor-general . This was the French government's response to the threat posed by Japanese troops who had captured the port city of Canton and the island of Hainan in 1938 . The Japanese made no attempt to take control of the Indochina colony until the summer of 1940.

Second World War

After the occupation of France by German troops, Indochina was isolated militarily. The Japanese then succeeded, by constantly increasing the pressure on the colonial government, in preparing and carrying out their invasion in July 1941 with diplomatic means. This included, among other things, the encouragement of Thailand to attack the western borders of Indochina in the winter of 1940.

For the remainder of World War II up to August 1945, Vietnam was administered by Japan . However, this happened until the spring of 1945 in cooperation with the French colonial administration under Admiral Decoux , who was now appointed by the Vichy regime . Working together, the situation of the Vietnamese worsened dramatically: They were now exploited by the French and the Japanese. The enormously growing demands of the occupiers for more and more food led to a famine in 1945 in which an estimated two million people died.

After Ho Chi Minh returned from exile in 1941, a »League for the Independence of Vietnam« was soon formed from over 40 resistance groups under the name Việt Minh to defend against Japanese imperialism and French colonialism. The Japanese overthrew French rule and installed Emperor Bảo Đại . The Republic of China and the United States , including their intelligence agency, the OSS , supported the Việt Minh, who had some success in combating the Japanese occupation. After the capitulation of Japan , Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated on August 25, 1945.

After the Potsdam Conference , Vietnam fell under the rule of the British .

Independence 1945

As the leader of the Việt Minh, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as an independent republic in all of Vietnam after the successful August Revolution on September 2, 1945, immediately after the signing of the surrender of the Japanese Empire . He referred to the US Declaration of Independence of 1776: "All men are created equal: the Creator has given us inviolable rights, life, liberty, and happiness!". Vietnam was the second independent republic in Southeast Asia after Indonesia (declaration of independence on August 17, 1945).

According to Gosha, when the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was founded , the Việt Minh proclaimed universal suffrage regardless of gender. The author does not give a specific date, but he names the decrees No. 14 and No. 51 as the legal basis and describes that this happened as part of the takeover of power during the August Revolution (declaration of independence on September 2, 1945). On September 2, 1945, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed. When they came to power during the August Revolution (declaration of independence on September 2, 1945), women received the same rights as men for the first time, including the right to vote. The legal basis for this was the decrees number 14 and number 51.

On January 6, 1946, the first all-Vietnamese election for the 1st National Assembly took place, which was won by the Việt Minh. In this election, women's suffrage was exercised for the first time. In 1946, only 2.5 percent of the MPs in the legislative assembly were women. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam only briefly covered the entire territory of the country. In 1946, the French colonial power returned to the south. During the colonial period until 1954 there was no right to vote for non-naturalized indigenous people of the colony. A source reports that women had the right to vote in South Vietnam for the election of Ngo Dinh Diem in 1955.

Indochina War

French Foreign Legionnaires patrol between Haiphong and Hanoi in 1954 , the M24 Chaffee light tank in the background originally came from American stocks

A few days after Vietnam declared independence, British troops landed in Saigon with the official task of disarming Japanese forces. National Chinese troops marched into Vietnam from the north. Despite a peace treaty with the Viet Minh, the French forced the re-establishment of their colonial regime in South Vietnam on September 23, 1945. The attempt of France, also the now independent North Vietnam again obedient to make, led in 1946 to the outbreak of the Indochina war . In 1948, a counter-government under French supervision was set up in South Vietnam, headed by the former Emperor Bao Dai as head of state from 1949. After years of guerrilla warfare, the Viet Minh under General Võ Nguyên Giáp succeeded in defeating the French in the battle for Điện Biên Phủ . This marked the end of French colonial rule in Indochina .

At the Indochina Conference in Geneva in mid-1954, the division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel into the (northern) Democratic Republic of Vietnam (capital Hanoi ) and the (southern) Republic of Vietnam (capital Saigon ) was decided.

North Vietnam

North Vietnam's economy has traditionally been strongly oriented towards China. The railway network laid out by the French was connected to Chinese railway lines, so that transport options for goods were available. Metallic raw materials were extracted and processed around the cities of Hanoi and Haiphong . The development of this metal industry was supported with loans from the Eastern Bloc countries . In addition to the export of raw materials, rice was traditionally mainly exported. North Vietnam increasingly dismantled trade with Japan and, from 1949 onwards, tied itself more closely to the People's Republic of China and states of the Eastern Bloc.

The French colonial rulers had introduced large estates and leases, a monetary economy and an export orientation , thereby creating a new, highly unequal social structure in Vietnam. The rural elites had nevertheless actively supported the Viet Minh's struggle for independence. After initial military successes in the Indochina War, Ho Chi Minh re-founded the Communist Party of Vietnam in 1951 . From 1953 to 1956, it carried out an agrarian reform in North Vietnam, modeled on the People's Republic of China, in order to subject landless and medium-sized farmers to greater political control and to participate in the development of the economy. With class struggle agitation and agitation against “counter-revolutionary elements” from village to village, they were raised against the farmers who had become wealthy during the colonial era. Around three to four percent of the farmers were expropriated and imprisoned or executed.

In 1956, the wave of terrorism called “orientation” increased: up to 86% of the party cadres in rural areas, in some districts up to 95% of the former resistance fighters were expelled from the party and many were executed because it was suspected that the committed leaders were from Landowners and the French "infiltrated". Up to 50,000 people were killed and a further 50,000 to 100,000 were arrested. After a wave of refugees and many desertions , the party leadership stopped the "purges" in order not to endanger the reunification of Vietnam under their leadership. A brief thaw period as a result of the Soviet de-Stalinization in 1956 ended the North Vietnamese Communist Party in December with a campaign against artists and intellectuals to bring them onto the party line. In 1957, Ho Chi Minh initiated the construction of large irrigation projects based on the Chinese model with propaganda. These resulted in crop failures and famine during a severe drought, with an unknown death toll. The government of North Vietnam later publicly described its previous policy of repression as a mistake.

In 1958, North Vietnam received from China an interest-free, all-in-kind loan of 800 million yuan to buy production facilities in China. North Vietnam mainly imported production equipment and supplied mining and agricultural products. The greatest obstacle to the aspired industrialization of North Vietnam was the lack of engineers, technicians and skilled workers. The PRC and the Eastern Bloc provided technical teaching staff to train local workers.

South Vietnam

In South Vietnam, on June 16, 1954, the head of state Bảo Đại commissioned the anti-colonial and anti-communist Catholic Ngô mitình Diệm to form a government. At that time, South Vietnam was largely ruled by two sects that had their own militias and collected taxes: the Cao Dai and the Buddhist Hoa Hao , who had already fought against French and Japanese rule. There were also organized gangster gangs called Bình Xuyên . After the partition, Communist Viet Minh cadres stayed in the south and operated underground. The domestic political situation when Diem took office was therefore unstable. In addition, immediately after the ceasefire agreement was concluded, around 880,000 predominantly Catholic North Vietnamese fled communist rule to South Vietnam and had to be integrated into its economy.

In the spring of 1955, Diem succeeded in suppressing two uprisings (a mutiny by their own army and an attack by armed sect militias) with US support. On October 23, 1955, he deposed Bao Dai after winning a controversial referendum with allegedly 98 percent of the vote. On October 26, 1955, he proclaimed Vietnam a republic and became the first president to take over government power.

In 1956, with the backing of the Eisenhower government , Diem refused the all-Vietnamese elections required by the Geneva Agreement, which were to be followed by reunification with North Vietnam. Instead, he had elections for a constituent national assembly held, which he won against several opposition parties with a large majority. This election confirmed the statehood of South Vietnam that had been proclaimed the year before. Diem and the USA strictly rejected all North Vietnamese demands for reunification.

The land reforms carried out by the Viet Minh have been withdrawn. After the long Indochina War, the government of the Republic of South Vietnam tried to set in motion economic reconstruction with five-year plans. The first five-year plan (1956–1961) was to be financed to around eighty percent by foreign capital. Areas of support should be agriculture, industry and mining. Because of the numerous refugees from North Vietnam, the food base of the population from their own cultivation was not secured. Therefore, 560,000 hectares of land should be replanted with rice, maize, tobacco and coffee. In addition, a food industry should be built to process the agricultural products in the country. In mining, coal production, which had largely collapsed, was to be brought back to the pre-war level in order to reduce the high imports. The textile industry should be built up in order to generate foreign exchange income. An aggravating obstacle was the high proportion of foreign private property, for example in the cultivation of rubber. Its income did not stay in the country, but mainly went to France.

The US supported Diem's ​​goal of building an independent and sovereign state. American economic and military aid reached around $ 3 billion by 1960.

The Diệm government was unpopular; Students and Buddhists protested the government policies. By 1960, South Vietnam sank more and more into corruption and chaos. On November 2, 1963 Diệm was murdered. This was followed by several short-lived governments, until a US- sponsored military junta under Nguyăn Văn Thiệu and Nguyễn Cao Kỳ took over the government and made Dương Văn Minh head of state.

Vietnam War

Trophy in the Vietnam War Museum
Viet Cong bombing in Saigon, 1965
Ho Chi Minh mausoleum in Hanoi

On July 30, 1964, the United States fabricated an incident in the Gulf of Tonkin . After only so-called military advisers of the USA were stationed in Vietnam under the previous President Kennedy , the USA took this incident as a reason for massive military rearmament. At that time, the USA assumed that the infiltration of North Vietnamese , i.e. communist forces , could overturn the western-oriented South Vietnam and also become communist ( domino theory ).

The so-called incident in the Gulf of Tonkin served Johnson to escalate the Vietnam War , which technically has to be called the Vietnam conflict, since there was never an official declaration of war . From 1965 there was a systematic air war by the USA against North Vietnam; in the south ever increasing numbers of US ground troops operate. By 1968 the war escalated, although the US was militarily far superior to North Vietnam. On the side of the liberation movement NLF (also FNL, by the Americans as a Viet Cong as a Viet Cong called) fought some 230,000 partisans and 50,000 members of the official North Vietnamese forces. In the end they faced around 550,000 Americans, roughly the same number of ARVN soldiers , 50,000 South Koreans and smaller contingents of allies (including Australia and New Zealand ).

On January 31, 1968, the FNL achieved a politically important victory with a military operation: In the Tet Offensive , the communist partisans of South Vietnam temporarily took parts of Saigon and other cities, and the well-secured US embassy in Saigon was attacked. This made it clear to those in charge in the USA that the situation was not under control in the way that it had been previously described. Public opinion in the USA, which had previously been mainly in favor of the war, turned when the real atrocities became visible to every citizen in the USA due to free press reports and photo reports on war atrocities, massacres and napalm victims. The USA therefore decided in 1969 to Vietnamize the war and withdraw its troops in several stages. However, the bombings and air strikes, particularly the use of defoliants ( Agent Orange ), continued until 1973. Today it is said that the USA lost the war above all in their own country, since most recently even highly decorated soldiers were against the war.

On September 2, 1969, Ho Chi Minh , the president of North Vietnam, died. That was the anniversary of the 1945 declaration of independence.

On January 28, 1973, Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ , the successor to Hồ Chí Minh, agreed an armistice. This ended the direct involvement of the USA in the war, but arms deliveries to South Vietnam continued. The North Vietnamese continued the fight against South Vietnam . The People's Liberation Army continued to make profits in South Vietnam. On April 21, 1975, Saigon was facing a fall, head of state Nguyễn Văn Thiệu resigned from office, and the last remaining US representatives were evacuated. Saigon was captured on April 30th, and South Vietnam surrendered unconditionally . The Vietnam War was over.

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

In the course of reunification after the Vietnam War, Vietnam was reunited as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam . The reunification took place fourteen months after the end of the war on July 2, 1976. As the successor state of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the united state was also a Marxist one-party dictatorship. The capital of the country remained in Hanoi. The former capital of South Vietnam was renamed Ho Chi Minh City . In the course of the conversion of South Vietnam to a communist system, the SRV expropriated the landowners and the thin layer of urban capital owners in the south. In agriculture they introduced the collectivization system that had already been tried and tested in the north. Leading forces of the former South Vietnamese state's wealthy residents were subjected to re-education and camp detention. The state identified around 6.5 million people who, in its view, were burdened by collaboration or collaborating family members, who were exposed to repression and social degradation. This led to the flight of hundreds of thousands of people who left their homes as boat people . After being rejected by neighboring states in the USA, Canada , France and Australia, the majority found acceptance after UN mediation. From 1975 to 1998 around 800,000 Vietnamese citizens fled the socialist Republic of Vietnam. It is estimated that around 200,000 lost their lives trying to escape, mainly across the South China Sea .

The terrorist regime of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia that emerged as a result of the Vietnam War and, above all, the spread of armed conflicts on Vietnamese territory prompted Vietnam to invade Cambodia. On January 7, 1979, Vietnamese troops conquered the Cambodian capital Phnom Penh and on the following day set up a “People's Revolutionary Council” under Heng Samrin, dependent on Vietnam . The People's Republic of China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge government, then provoked armed conflicts along the border with Vietnam . However, after too high losses on the Chinese side, the fighting will soon cease. Vietnam only withdrew from Cambodia in 1989. Due to the conflict with China, the SRV moved significantly closer to the Soviet Union, which also used the country as a naval base. After its collapse in 1991, Vietnam was largely isolated in terms of foreign policy.

Since 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam (KPV), like China, has been pursuing a policy of transformation to a socialist market economy , the so-called " Đổi mới " policy. The CPV, however, sticks to its political monopoly of power and rejects a multi-party system. The 14-member Politburo determines the guidelines for politics. It has been headed by General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng since January 2011 . The transformation took place through the privatization of agriculture with the abandonment of price control in 1986. Central planning was also given up in favor of decision-making in state-owned companies. The opening policy led to a rapid growth in GDP of 5 to 8 percent from the 1990s, which weakened from the 21st century. The proportion of the population below the poverty line fell from around 50% in 1986 to 11% in 2012. While there was still a food shortage in the 1980s, the country's economic liberalization policy made it the third largest travel exporter in the world.

See also

literature

  • Jean Chesneaux: History of Vietnam. Rütten & Loening, Berlin (East) 1963.
  • Thành Khôi Lê (author), Otto Karow (translator): 3000 years of Vietnam. Kindler, Munich 1969.

Web links

Commons : History of Vietnam  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ see also en: Siege of Tourane
  2. ↑ Tran My-Van; A Vietnamese Royal Exile in Japan; Abingdon 2005; ISBN 0-415-29716-8
  3. ↑ Interview with the US-American OSS agent Colonel Archimedes LA Patti from April 1, 1980 In: Media Library and Archives openvault.wgbh.org
  4. ↑ Christopher E. Goscha: Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War 1945 - 1954. Copenhagen, 2011, p. 498
  5. ↑ Micheline R., Lessard: Women's Suffrage in Viêt Nam. In: Louise Edwards, Mina Roces (Ed.): Women's Suffrage in Asia. Routledge Shorton New York, 2004, pp. 106-126, pp. 106.
  6. ↑ a b Christopher E. Goscha: Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War 1945 - 1954. Copenhagen, 2011, p. 498.
  7. ↑ Publications of the official website of the Vietnamese National Assembly na.gov.vn ( Memento of October 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  8. ↑ Christopher E. Goscha: A History of Vietnam. New York, 2016, p. 366.
  9. ↑ Micheline R., Lessard: Women's Suffrage in Viêt Nam. In: Louise Edwards, Mina Roces (Ed.): Women's Suffrage in Asia. Routledge Shorton New York, 2004, pp. 106-126, p. 119.
  10. ^ Robert G. Scigliano: The Electoral Process in South Vietnam: Politics in an Underdeveloped State. In: Midwest Journal of Political Science, Volume 4, Issue 2, May 1960, pp. 138-161.
  11. ↑ Philip Gavin The Vietnam War - Seeds of Conflict 1945–1960 historyplace.com
  12. ^ Gabriel Kolko: Anatomy of a War , pp. 68-71.
  13. ↑ Jean-Louis Margolin: Vietnam: The Dead End of War Communism. In: Stéphane Courtois (ed.): The Black Book of Communism , Munich 1998, pp. 634–636
  14. ↑ Bruce Lockhart, William J. Duiker: Historical Dictionary of Vietnam. Lanham, 2006, pp. 332f, pp. 342f
  15. ↑ Christopher Goscha: Vietnam - A New History. New York, 2016 pp. 377 - 384
  16. ↑ Christopher Goscha: Vietnam - A New History. New York, 2016 p. 386
  17. ↑ Christopher Goscha: Vietnam - A New History. New York, 2016 pp. 393 - 398
  18. ↑ Amos R. Helms: "The XI. Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (KPV)" - country report of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation
  19. ↑ Christopher Goscha: Vietnam - A New History. New York, 2016 pp. 398 - 401