History of Thailand
The history of Thailand ( Siam until 1939 ) looks at the events on today's territory of the state of Thailand and the neighboring regions connected to it, such as Myanmar , Laos , Cambodia and the Malacca Peninsula, over a period of several thousand years before the turn of the times until today.
Historical periods
- Prehistory and migration period
- The Kingdom of Sukhothai (1238-1438)
- The Kingdom of Ayutthaya (1351-1767)
- Thonburi period (1767–1782) as a transition period to
- Rattanakosin period under the Chakri dynasty (1782 to present)
This classic classification of Thai historiography is, however, focused on the states of central Thailand. It ignores the fact that the out-of-center regions of present-day Thailand had their own histories. These were in particular the Kingdom of Lan Na in what is now northern Thailand, the Lao states in what is now Isan (northeastern Thailand) and the Sultanate of Patani in the extreme south. Only since the last quarter of the 18th century have these regions been under the constant political influence of the former Siam.
prehistory
In 1967, archaeological excavations began in the village of Ban Chiang in the northeastern Thai province of Udon Thani , during which a special ceramic painted with red on yellow-brown clay came to light. The oldest finds from the Neolithic date from the second half of the 4th millennium BC. The beginning of the Bronze Age in Ban Chiang is not known until the beginning of the 2nd millennium or around 1500 BC at the earliest. Dated. Rock carvings can be found in Phu Phrabat ( Udon Thani ) and Pha Taem ( Ubon Ratchathani ).
However, the Neolithic cultures in today's Thailand cannot be associated with today's Thai. These immigrated from other areas and met other peoples. During antiquity, the area of today's Thailand belonged to the cultural area of Suvarnabhumi ("Golden Land"), whose city-states traded with China and India and which the Greeks and Romans also reported. Intensive trade contacts and technology exchange with India are evidenced by finds in the archaeological sites of Khao Sam Kaeo in the province of Chumphon and Ban Don Ta Phet in Kanchanaburi . During the excavation of the historical city of U Thong in today's Suphan Buri province and the presumed port city of Khuan Lukpat in Krabi , Roman coins and seals with representations from Greco-Roman mythology were discovered.
Early empires and first evidence of the Thai
Funan, Dvaravati, Chenla
The oldest known civilization today was Funan , the first " Indianized Empire " in Southeast Asia, which existed in the first half of the 1st millennium AD. Its center is located in the Mekong Delta, in South Vietnam and Cambodia, but its area of influence presumably also includes eastern Thailand. Its culture was shaped by Hinduism and Buddhism , and inscriptions were mostly written in Sanskrit .
The first historically verifiable state or state network in the area of today's central Thailand was the Dvaravati culture. Their centers were probably in what is now Lop Buri (Lavo) and Nakhon Pathom , their cultural peak was reached in the 6th to 9th centuries. The bearers of this culture were Buddhist Mon , who lived from agriculture and trade. Their most important testimonies are ornate Buddha statues and Dharmachakras ("wheels of law"), but also coins. In addition to native coins, Roman coins were also found, suggesting early intercontinental trade. An offshoot of Dvaravati in what is now northern Thailand was Haripunjaya , which existed from the 9th to 13th centuries and had its center in what is now Lamphun . In today's northeastern Thailand, in the valleys of the Chi and Mun rivers , there are sites whose cultures are related to that of Dvaravatis.
Parts of northeast Thailand probably belonged to the zone of influence of Chenla , a forerunner of the Khmer Empire of Angkor, or after its split at the beginning of the 8th century to "Land-Chenla" or Wendan (these names come from Chinese chronicles, the respective self-name has not been passed down ). Other important sites from this phase are Si Thep in northern Thailand and Mueang Sema in northeastern Thailand, whose affiliation to Dvaravati or Chenla / Wendan is controversial among historians. The same applies to the localization of the state of Canasapura mentioned in stone inscriptions .
Origin of the Tai
The Tai (ancestors u. A. Of today's Thai and Lao ) migrated, according to one theory over a longer period from the north along the rivers Mekong , Chao Phraya and Irrawaddy into the area that is now Thailand. The original settlement area of the Tai is not exactly clear. The Tai may come from what is now southern China and northern Vietnam and were forced to migrate south due to pressure from the Chinese and Vietnamese . According to other theses, the Tai settled in northern or central China or they were the basic population of the Nanzhao empire; However, both theses are not tenable from today's perspective. However, it is likely that the Tai settled southern areas of the Nanzhao Empire, as Chinese sources indicate that they were feared because of their warlike activities.
The thesis that the Tai were expelled from China and immigrated to what is now Thailand was spread mainly by the nationalist historians Prince Damrong Rajanubhab and Wichitwathakan in the 1920s and 1930s, in whose anti-Chinese ideology they are part of fit in well. However, it has also been questioned by Thai historians since the 1980s. The fact that various Tai peoples who are related to the Thai still live in China speak against displacement . Instead, the settlement area of the Tai peoples may have traditionally spanned southern China and much of Southeast Asia, including what is now Thailand. The American historian David K. Wyatt (1937-2006), who specializes in Thailand, was also convinced that Tai peoples were widespread in northern Southeast Asia, including the far north of present-day Thailand, as early as the 8th century of the Christian era.
The Tai, a peasant people who grew rice on irrigation fields in plains and valleys and partly operated slash-and-burn agriculture, came across peoples who had developed further in terms of civilization during their migration. There was mixing and assimilation, whereby the Tai element prevailed. Why the Tai were able to prevail over the already resident population is partly explained by their organization in multi-ethnic Müang . Tai and non-Tai lived together in these village groups, which promoted assimilation.
Angkor area of influence
From the 9th to the beginning of the 13th century, important parts of today's Thailand were ruled by the Khmer Empire of Angkor . Until around 1050 Angkor expanded to central Thailand at the expense of the Mon empires. Lop Buri, an ancient center of the Dvaravati culture and independent kingdom of the Mon came under the control of the Khmer and became one of the most important centers of their empire alongside the capital Angkor.
In neighboring Burma, the Bagan Empire became an important power under King Anawrahta from the 11th century . The Malay Peninsula with the south of today's Thailand was shaped by the Srivijaya Empire. For the 13th century there is a reference to an empire called Chen-li-fu in the Chinese chronicles , although it is not exactly clear which people founded this empire; it cannot be ruled out that this was one of the first state foundations of the Tai. North of Thailand, in today's Yunnan , was Nanzhao , in the southern part of which the Tai peoples probably settled at that time. Nanzhao was conquered by the Mongols in 1253.
The first written evidence of the presence of the Tai as slaves can be found on inscriptions in Bagan dating from around 1120. Inscriptions from the Cham empire (middle of the 11th century) tell of Syam slaves. In the 12th century it is finally documented that Thai ("Syam") were present in the armies of Angkor. Portraits from Angkor temples clearly show that the Thai contingents preferred different hairstyle and clothing than the Khmer.
The population of the area ruled from Angkor was ethnically heterogeneous. While the ruling Khmer made up the majority in its center (beyond what is now Cambodia, presumably also in southern Laos, the south of today's Isan and eastern Thailand), other peoples lived on its fringes. In the west, i.e. the Chao Phraya plain and further north along the Ping River around the present-day cities of Chiang Mai and Lamphun, these were initially mainly Buddhist Mon. as in the Chao Phraya Basin, which is now in the center of Thailand, an increasing number of Tai tribes (i.e. the ancestors of today's Thai and Lao) can be found. Since these remained loyal to their own tribal lords and were thus a potential source of uprisings and unrest, the Khmer rulers often used Tai princes as local, tributary rulers. In some cases, Khmer emperors even gave them one of their daughters as a wife to strengthen their bond. Nevertheless, the Tai, due to their own language and religion (Theravada Buddhism, the Khmer were Brahmanic Hinduists ) retained their own ethnic identity.
First Tai States
The Tai's first independent statehoods were unlikely to last long. The oldest traditions tell of a land called Yonok , which is said to have existed from the ninth century. It is located on the Upper Mekong, south of Nanzhao, west of Dai Viet and north of the Khmer sphere of influence. According to the chronicles, its inhabitants professed Buddhism and lived from growing rice. It was likely that clashes with the Khmer took place at this time. The Shan , another Tai people, settled in Upper Burma and decisively weakened Bagan until its capital was destroyed in 1298. This and the slow decline of the Khmer empire allowed the Tai to form their own larger and stable political units, for example around Luang Prabang (now northern Laos ) or Wiang, which was founded by Prince Phrom towards the end of the 10th century west of what is now Chiang Rai Chaiprakan (on the site of today's city of Fang), whose area of influence extended to Sawankhalok (today in Sukhothai Province ).
The 13th century is called a "Century of Tai" by David K. Wyatt. While there was only one independent Tai principality in the far north of present-day Thailand around 1200, large parts of the central Southeast Asian mainland were ruled by Tai kings at the beginning of the 14th century. This was accompanied by the decline of the old Mon states, the Burmese Empire of Pagan and, above all, the Khmer Empire of Angkor. In this sense, the real history of Thailand begins in the 13th century.
The Sukhothai Empire (1238-1438)
The governor of Mueang Bang Yang, a province in the northern Chao Phraya Basin, at that time the westernmost part of Angkor's area of influence, sat at the head of a Thai state after a rebellion against the supremacy of the Khmer and settled in 1238 as Crowning Sri Indraditya as king. The Thai called their capital Sukhothai.
The most important ruler of Sukhothai was King Ramkhamhaeng (1275–1298). At the beginning of his rule only a few cities in the vicinity of Sukhothai were under his control, at his death the sphere of influence of Sukhothai corresponded to that of today's Thailand. In terms of foreign policy, Ramkhamhaeng normalized relations with China by sending a tribute embassy. The cooperation with the other Thai kings Mangrai (Kingdom of Lan Na ) and Ngam Mueang ( Phayao Kingdom) against the Mongols threatening from the north is remarkable, as is the respect with which the rulers treated one another. Domestically and internationally, the predominance of the Khmer was forever eliminated.
There is a stone inscription dated 1292 which is attributed to Ramkhamhaeng. It is now in the National Museum in Bangkok , but its authenticity is controversial. It tells how Ramkhamhaeng is said to have ruled the country. As a result, he observed the son's loyalty to the father, was lenient to captured enemies, respected the property and inheritance of his subjects, and did not create barriers to trade. There is said to have been a bell at which each of his subjects could ring in order to be heard by the king. The inscription also deals with a commitment to Buddhism and the worship of the Phra Khapung spirit . The inscription also attributes the development of the Thai script to Ramkhamhaeng in 1283. Although the ruler saw himself as the father of his subjects and the gentleness that the rulers of Sukhothai are said to be lenient, this state knew a very clear social differentiation between free, slaves and aristocrats. The Mangraisat created later shows that all free people owed half of their labor to the Lord.
The principle prevailed that whoever reclaimed a piece of nature would acquire ownership of this land. In economic matters, the laissez-faire principle was widely applied . This led to rapid economic development and rapid territorial expansion. Sukhothai enjoyed great economic prosperity and was largely peaceful inside.
In the Sukhothai Empire, Theravada Buddhism was adopted by the Mon and deeply anchored in society. Numerous Buddha images with the characteristic soft shapes were created. Sukhothai's art is now considered to be the most original and beautiful in the history of Thailand. The successors of Ramkhamhaeng were not only kings but also Buddhist scholars; King Li Thai created the first Siamese Buddhist book called Sermon on the Three Worlds .
The descendants of Ramkhamhaeng were not great generals, the empire quickly lost influence and territory, and Ramkhamhaeng's grandson Li Thai is said to have voluntarily bowed to his superior neighbor Ayutthaya and abdicated.
Lan Na
Based on the principality of Ngoen Yang (now Chiang Saen ), Mangrai founded a kingdom in northern Thailand in the second half of the 13th century , which was called Lan Na - "Land of Millions of Rice Fields". He succeeded in conquering the influential and economically successful state of Haripunjaya, ruled by Mon, and was crowned in Lamphun in 1281 . Mangrai founded Chiang Rai and Chiang Mai , resisted the threat of the Mongols threatening the empire from the north, and signed a treaty of friendship with King Suddhasoma of Pegu . Lan Na and other kingdoms in northern Thailand maintained a high degree of independence from the rest of Thailand for several centuries.
The Empire of Ayutthaya (1351-1767)
Early period
The kingdom of Ayutthaya was founded by the charismatic prince and first king Ramathibodi I in 1351 and subsequently determined what is happening in what is now Thailand for about 400 years with 33 rulers and seven dynasties . The early kings, especially Borommaracha II , succeeded over a period of about 100 years in building up a hegemony over all principalities in present-day Thailand and binding them to themselves by submitting or building relationships. This included Sukhothai , which could only be absorbed after 1438. The capital of the Angkor empire to the east was conquered twice; numerous prisoners of war, including high officials, Brahmins and artists of the empire were settled as prisoners of war in Ayutthaya. The result was that the Khmer Empire fell and many Angkor traditions were carried on in the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. This included, for example, the godlike kingship in contrast to the fatherly kingship of Sukhothai. In the south of the country there was a confrontation with the Sultanate of Malacca . However, the north of today's Thailand could not be permanently brought under the rule of Ayutthaya and remained largely independent.
Under King Trailok , the area ruled by Ayutthaya was centralized, the power of the regional princes was limited and the Sakdina system was introduced, which enabled the king to efficiently mobilize workers or troops in the event of war. Ayutthaya thus had the most efficient state in Southeast Asia, but always weakened itself through crippling rivalries for the throne. Such a period of weakness led to a successful invasion of the Burmese in the middle of the 16th century, who first conquered Lan Na under Bayinnaung and who took the capital in 1569. After his release from captivity in Burma, Prince Naresuan , who later became king, succeeded in raising new troops, pushing the Burmese away and finally killing the heir to the throne of the Burmese in the battle of Nong Sarai . Naresuan was able to consolidate his rule quickly and he also succeeded in conquering the important trading cities of Tenasserim and Tavoy .
Confrontation with the colonial powers
Traditionally, many Chinese, Persian and Arab traders lived in Ayutthaya. The first Europeans to come to the country were the Portuguese in 1511. They signed a treaty that allowed them to set up a trading post in exchange for arms and mercenaries. The first half of the 17th century, when the kings Ekathotsarot , Songtham and Prasat Thong ruled, was dominated by the conflict with the colonial powers of the Netherlands, Great Britain and France. They all set up trading establishments and factories in southern Thailand and at the gates of the capital. The kings of Ayutthaya benefited from the presence of the Europeans, who excelled in the construction of fortifications and palaces. In return, the facilities were allowed by Catholic missions. Siamese delegations visited the Netherlands and France. Foreigners even reached high positions as provincial governors, ministers or advisers to the king, such as the Greek Constantine Phaulkon . The rivalry between the colonial powers, which was also used by the Siamese in their favor, required the presence of soldiers and the fortification of the trading facilities. This was particularly displeasing to the Siamese nobility, who in 1688 took King Narai's illness as an opportunity to revolt, appoint Phetracha as the new king, execute the influential Phaulkon, expel foreigners and forbid proselytizing. This event, also known as the Siamese Revolution , resulted in the Europeans playing no role in the history of the country for the next 150 years.
Golden Age and Fall of Ayutthaya
The country did not seal itself off after 1688, however, but instead had a flourishing trade with its neighbors as well as China, Persia and Arabia. A period began that was marked by peace and stability, despite the bloody battles for the throne. Art, literature and theater flourished. This period was the height of the literature of Thailand, the royal court became the center of literary life. Translations from Sanskrit , Khmer , Pali and Javanese promoted the expressiveness of the Thai language. Many construction projects were carried out and hegemony over Laos and Cambodia was enforced. At the same time, however, the country's leading families succeeded in increasing their control over the country's subjects at the expense of those of the king. The central power was thus weakened and the country's foreign policy options were limited.
At the same time as the golden age in Ayutthaya, the Konbaung dynasty established itself in neighboring Burma , which, after its consolidation, pursued an aggressive policy of expansion. In 1759 Ayutthaya lost its possessions in what is now southern Burma, and shortly afterwards the first siege of its capital took place. After King Alaungpaya's death , the Burmese withdrew temporarily until a year-long siege of the capital began under King Hsinbyushin in 1766 , which led to the fall of the city and its complete destruction in 1767. The royal family either perished in the war or were taken to Burma as prisoners of war. Numerous writings and works of art were lost. Ayutthaya did not later become the capital of Thailand.
Isan as part of Lan Xang
In 1354, around the same time as Ayutthaya , a network of principalities of the Lao, who also had Tai origins , arose in the area of what is now Laos Lan Xang . The area belonging to Lan Xang went beyond today's Laos borders and also included large parts of Isan, which is now Thai . In 1779 it came under Siamese rule. Up to this time, the history of today's northeast region, as well as that of northern Thailand (Lan Na), was different from that of the Siamese central and southern Thailand. As a result, the language and culture in Isan has been shaped by the Laotian to this day. The distinction between the Isan, which belongs to Thailand, and the actual Laos with the Mekong as a border river was only established through the creation of the French Protectorate of Laos in 1893.
Patani Sultanate
The three southernmost provinces also have their own history, different from that of central Thailand. They belonged to the Sultanate of Patani, whose history also goes back to the 14th century. This had to pay tribute to Ayutthaya from the 15th century onwards, but was in fact largely independent. This only gradually decreased from the late 17th century, in favor of a greater influence of the supremacy in Ayutthaya. It was not until 1902 that the autonomy was completely abolished and the area was integrated into the Thai central state as provinces.
Thonburi period (1767 to 1782)
The Chinese-born General Taksin was able to flee the besieged city of Ayutthaya and move to eastern Thailand. There he succeeded in forming new troops and organizing the resistance against the Burmese. He benefited from the fact that Burma was threatened by an invasion of China at the same time and that they therefore only left very weak occupation forces in Ayutthaya. As early as October 1767, he managed to recapture the capital. Ayutthaya did not become the center of the empire again, but the strategically more favorably located Thonburi .
After the year-long siege, the supply situation for the population was catastrophic. Taksin introduced numerous measures to alleviate the plight, including the help of influential Chinese families. So all government employees regardless of their rank had to work in the fields; Lack of discipline, corruption, cowardice or smuggling were severely punished. In order to enable the state to intervene more efficiently on the work of the subjects, he had all unfree people tattooed. He broke with the tradition of the godlike kings of Ayutthaya and was a ruler who took care of many details personally.
He was able to reunite the empire, which had split up into several states after the fall of the capital, by 1770. In 1776 he even succeeded in conquering Lan Na . In 1768 he increased the Siamese influence in Cambodia and in 1778 he subjugated Laos, from where he brought back the famous Emerald Buddha , one of the greatest shrines of Buddhism.
Two of his generals stood out on his campaigns: the brothers Chao Phraya Chakri and Chao Phraya Surasi . They came from the aristocracy of Ayutthaya, were associated with rich Chinese families and thus had a higher social position than Taksin. A rivalry developed between Chakri and Taksin. There are two histories of the outcome of this conflict and the end of Taksin. According to the former, Taksin became increasingly insane and imposed numerous death sentences on people around him, which led to a revolt against him. According to the second historiography, he was very sane and tactful to avert the evil that was looming against him. In any case, he was arrested, convicted and executed in 1782. This was done because the king's blood could not be shed, by being wrapped in a sack and being killed with a club made of sandalwood.
The Chakri Dynasty (1782 to the present day)
For the naming of the Chakri kings see Rama (Kings of Thailand) .
Restoration under Rama I.
Chakri ascended the throne as a 45-year-old in 1782. He went as King Phra Phutthayotfa or Rama I in history. It is likely that he and his family planned to ascend to the throne while his predecessor Taksin was still alive . After his coronation he carried out a systematic bloody extermination of Taksin's followers, which corresponds to the typical approach of the usurpers in Thai history.
The new dynasty moved the capital from Thonburi to Rattanakosin , today's Bangkok . Up until then Bangkok had only been a small settlement with a fort, but it was strategically located on the eastern bank of the Mae Nam Chao Phraya and was known to foreign traders as the key to Siam . New palaces and temples were built with materials from Ayutthaya. For the Emerald Buddha was Wat Phra Kaeo founded. The king set himself the goal of transferring the old splendor of Ayutthaya to the new capital. In his new capital, Rama I had himself crowned in a magnificent ceremony in 1785.
In terms of foreign policy, the reign of Rama I was shaped by the still acute threat posed by Burma. Six Burmese campaigns against Siam took place under their new King Bodawpaya . In 1785 five armies attacked the territory of Siam simultaneously, while in 1786 a powerful army marched in over the Three Pagoda Pass . It came to the " War of the Nine Armies ". In all cases, the Siamese side remained victorious after eventful battles. From 1805, northern Thailand could also be largely brought under control of Bangkok. Attempts on the part of Rama I to conquer southern Burma, where several important trading ports were located, were unsuccessful. This conflict was the last of these two rival powers in Southeast Asia.
At the time of Rama I, Cambodia was practically administered like a province of Siam, as its rival Vietnam was struggling with internal problems. It was not until the new emperor Gia Long had ascended the throne that Siam's influence in Cambodia was fought again. Relations with Vietnam began to play an important role in this epoch. There were no significant relations with the European colonial powers during the reign of Rama I.
One of the most important achievements of Rama I is that from 1804 he had all the laws of the country collected, checked and codified in a 1700-page work (currently in print). These so-called three-seal laws remained in their basic features until the beginning of the 20th century.
Siam also achieved a high level in the cultural field. So the Buddhist canon ( three basket ) was collected and reformulated within the framework of a grand council. The arts were promoted, if only by building new palaces and temples in the new capital. But literature and theater are also flourishing, works such as the important 3,000-page Ramakian were created in this epoch . Works from the Chinese, Mon, Javanese, Persian and Indian languages have been translated into Thai.
As the first king of the Chakri dynasty, Rama I continued the traditions of Ayutthaya in many ways. However, the new empire was even more tightly centralized than its predecessor. A particularly important innovation was the increased emphasis on rationality in the relationship between the monarch and his subjects. Rama I was the first king in the history of the country to justify or justify his decisions in front of the highest officials.
Maintaining the status quo under Rama II and Rama III.
Rama II (Phra Phutthaloetla) was the son of Rama I. His accession to the throne was accompanied by a plot that resulted in the execution of 40 people. The internal and external political calm that followed during the reign of Rama II and his successor Rama III. (Phra Nang Klao) was mainly achieved through giving in to conflicts and building good relationships with influential domestic clans.
In terms of foreign policy, relations with neighboring states initially dominated, while those with the European colonial powers took a back seat. Vietnam gained dominance in Cambodia and Laos, which Rama II initially accepted. When a rebellion broke out in Vietnam, was under Rama III. 1833/34 tried to defeat the Vietnamese militarily, but this led to a loss-making defeat of the Siamese troops. In the 1940s, however, the Khmer themselves succeeded in driving out the Vietnamese, which subsequently led to a greater influence of the Siamese in Cambodia. At the same time, Siam remained a tribute payer to China.
English colonial interests came into serious contact when Siam conquered the Sultanate of Kedah on the Malay Peninsula in 1821 . Kedah belonged to England's zone of interest; in the following year, after tough negotiations with the English ambassador John Crawfurd , the Siamese had to recognize their status before the conquest. During this epoch there was also a hesitant resumption of trade and proselytizing. Mainly English traders like Robert Hunter ( discoverer of the Siamese twins ) or James Hayes , but also missionaries like Jacob Tomlin , Karl Gützlaff , Dan Beach Bradley or Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix became active in Siam. In 1825 a trade agreement was signed with the English emissary Henry Burney ; Siam had to recognize British colonial possession on the Malay Peninsula. This agreement came about not least because of the rapid British success in the first Anglo-Burmese war .
A potentially dangerous event occurred with the Anuvong Rebellion in 1827, when the troops of the actually tributary King Anuvong advanced from Vientiane towards Bangkok. However, they could be destroyed, which strengthened Siam's position in Laos; all Lao populated areas west of the Mekong were declared Siamese provinces.
The beginning of the Chinese mass immigration to Siam also falls in the 19th century . With the availability of Chinese workers, trade, agriculture and handicrafts flourished.
Under Rama II and Rama III. culture, dance, poetry and especially the theater reached a high point. In the temple Wat Pho was by Rama III. founded the first university in the country.
The reign of Rama III. was eventually marked by a split among the aristocracy on foreign policy. A small group of advocates for the adoption of Western technologies and other achievements were opposed by conservative circles who advocated greater isolation. Since the kings Rama II and Rama III. belonged to the conservative-religious circles, an isolationist tendency dominated to a large extent.
The death of Rama III. in 1851 also marked the end of the old Siamese monarchy: there were already clear signs of profound changes that had to be implemented by the two successors of the king.
Siam in transition
Reforms under Rama IV and Rama V.
When King Mongkut (Rama IV.) Ascended the Siamese throne, it was threatened from the outside. The colonial powers England and France had already advanced into territories that originally belonged to the Siamese zone of influence. Mongkut and his successor Chulalongkorn (Rama V.) recognized this situation and tried to strengthen the defenses of Siam through modernization, to absorb western scientific and technical achievements and thus to avoid colonization.
The two monarchs who ruled during this period were the first to be educated in the West. King Mongkut had lived for 26 years, first as a wandering monk and later as abbot of Wat Bowonniwet . Not only was he well versed in the traditional and Buddhist sciences of Siam, but he had also studied the modern Western natural sciences intensively, drawing on the knowledge of European missionaries and his correspondence with Western heads of state and the Pope. He was the first Siamese monarch to master the English language. His son Chulalongkorn, who ascended the throne at the age of 15 in 1868, had, in addition to a traditional Siamese upbringing, an English teacher ( Anna Leonowens ). At a young age he had traveled to the areas of Asia colonized by foreign powers and studied technical advances there. He repeatedly toured his own country incognito and visited Europe twice in 1897 and 1907.
As early as 1855, John Bowring , the British governor of Hong Kong, appeared on a warship in Bangkok. Impressed by the successes that England was able to achieve in neighboring Burma, King Mongkut signed the so-called Bowring Treaty , which abolished the royal monopoly on foreign trade, reduced import tariffs and granted England a most-favored nation clause. The Bowring Treaty meant the integration of Siam into the world economy, but at the same time the royal family lost its most important sources of income. Similar treaties were concluded with all Western powers in the following years, for example with Prussia in 1862 and with Austria-Hungary in 1869 . The Prussian emissary, Count Friedrich zu Eulenburg , wrote a highly acclaimed travelogue about Siam. The survival diplomacy, which Siam had cultivated in foreign policy for a long time, thus reached its climax in this epoch.
Between 1875 and 1890 Siam fought repeatedly in the Ho Wars against armed gangs from southern China, who invaded the northeast of the Siamese zone of influence (today's north of Laos).
Integration into the world economy meant for Siam that it became a market for western industrial goods and an investment place for western capital. The export of agricultural and mineral raw materials began. Around 1900, 90% of export sales were achieved with the three products rice, tin and teak . King Mongkut actively promoted the expansion of the agricultural land through tax incentives, at the same time the construction of traffic routes (canals, roads and later also railway lines ) and the influx of Chinese immigrants enabled new regions to be opened up for agriculture. However, in 1908, the Chinese went on strike in Bangkok after the government increased the poll tax for Chinese foreigners from 4.5 to 6 baht. Chinese traders stopped selling consumer goods, and for three days there was practically no rice or other food to buy in Bangkok. This event worsened relations between the Chinese and Thai.
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The two kings Mongkut and Chulalongkorn watched as both France and Great Britain expanded their colonial territories in Southeast Asia and encircled Siam: Great Britain from the west (Burma) and south (Malaya), France from the east (Vietnam). After France conquered South Vietnam , it claimed a protective power for Cambodia and in 1867, under military threats, forced Siam to renounce any influence on its former vassal state. In 1887 the Indochinese Union was founded. After British intervention , the construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Kra , which a group of entrepreneurs led by the engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps aimed at, did not take place. England had conquered Northern Bureau in the third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. A decisive event was the Paknam incident when, on July 13, 1893, French gunboats drove up the Chao Phraya River towards Bangkok and were shot at by the Siamese coastal forts. In the same year, Siam was forced to sign a treaty with France in which it ceded the areas east of the Mekong of what is now Laos to French Indochina. In 1896 Great Britain and France signed a treaty which made the Mekong the border between the two colonial powers and Siam, defined as the basin of the Mae Nam Chao Phraya, granted independence as a buffer state .
The threat from the colonial powers, culminating in the incident of 1893, made a great impression on the ruling circles and accelerated the extensive reforms in administration, military, economy and society that Chulalongkorn had already begun. In doing so, it sealed the development of Siam from a traditional feudalist structure that was based on personal rule and dependencies and whose peripheral areas were only indirectly linked to central power, to a centralistically governed nation-state with fixed borders and modern political institutions. The Thai historian Thongchai Winichakul put forward the widely accepted thesis that it was the pressure and claims of the colonial powers that justified the idea of Siam as a geographically delimitable construct (geo-body) that was the prerequisite for the development of a Thai national identity.
In the political field, absolutism was retained, but an advisory body, the State Council, was created and 10 line ministries established. King Chulalongkorn appointed his brothers and half-brothers, later also sons, to be ministers and ousted the previously very powerful aristocratic families (e.g. Bunnag ) from power. The climax of the political reforms was the introduction of the thesaphiban system from 1892. King Chulalongkorn withdrew self-administration from the principalities and city-states ( Müang ) , which were still partly autonomous and ruled by their own dynasties and were tributary vassals of Siam. He made them provinces ( Changwat ) , which were combined into larger circles ( Monthon ) and controlled centrally by the Ministry of the Interior , which was headed by Prince Damrong Rajanubhab , a half-brother of the king.
An army based on foreign models was built up, warships were acquired, and European advisors were added to the officer corps. Great care was taken not to give any European power too much influence. A two-year general conscription was introduced. By 1900 the Siamese army had a strength of 15,000 men.
A Ministry of Justice was created around 1900, and new Western-style laws such as criminal law or commercial law were introduced. The executive and judicial branches were separated from each other. The aim of these measures was not least to abolish consular jurisdiction , which allowed foreign powers to judge their own citizens in Siam.
A state school system was introduced because the traditional education that was given to the boys in the temples and monasteries no longer met modern requirements. From 1900 schools for girls were also established. The technical schools founded by King Chulalongkorn formed the basis for the later founding of full-fledged universities. However, a very small part of the state budget was spent on education, which is why the goal of providing general education for every child could not be achieved.
In the social field, personal bondage was gradually abolished. The labor services owed by the subjects to their masters were replaced by taxes in the form of money. This brought with it considerable productivity gains, at the same time traditional personal dependency relationships were loosened.
There was also resistance against modernization and centralization in their own country: In 1875, a crisis broke out between Chulalongkorn and his “ viceroy ”, Prince Wichaichan , who presumably worked with conservative forces to prepare for the overthrow of the reform-loving king. The king then abolished the office of “viceroy”, but initially slowed down the pace of his reforms so as not to endanger his own position. In the north and north-east of Siam, farmers rioted several times because of the very high taxes. The first trade union was founded in Bangkok around the turn of the century. From 1901/02 there were uprisings led by so-called phu mi bun (“holy men”) in Isan as well as in neighboring French Laos. A millenarian or messianic belief in imminent apocalyptic changes and the appearance of a god sent “just king” were circulating. Dozens of men now appeared claiming to be the heralded Savior and gathering followers. In 1902 there was an uprising by ethnic Shan in Phrae in northern Thailand with the support of the local ruler. The uprisings were put down by government forces.
In 1904, 1907 and 1909 there were renewed border corrections in favor of France and Great Britain. When King Chulalongkorn died in 1910, Siam had the borders of what is now Thailand.
Nation building under Vajiravudh and Prajadhipok
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King Chulalongkorn's successor was King Rama VI, better known as Vajiravudh , in October 1910 . He had studied law and history as the designated heir to the throne in Great Britain. After his accession to the throne, he assigned important official posts to his devoted friends who did not belong to the nobility and were even less qualified than their predecessors, a procedure that had not been seen before in Siam. During his reign (1910–1925) there were some changes that brought Siam closer to foreign countries. The Gregorian calendar was introduced, all citizens of his country had to adopt a family name , women were encouraged to wear skirts and long hairstyles and a citizenship law based on the ius sanguinis was passed. Efforts in the field of education were intensified, so in 1917 Chulalongkorn University was founded and compulsory schooling was introduced for all 7 to 14 year olds. Due to an acute lack of money, this was initially only implemented for about half of the children.
King Vajiravudh was a lover of literature and theater and translated foreign literature into his mother tongue. He created the spiritual foundation for a kind of Thai nationalism , a phenomenon that was previously unknown in Siam. It was based on the unity of nation, Buddhism and royalty and required allegiance from its subjects to all three of these institutions. King Vajiravudh also indulged in irrational and contradicting anti-sinicism. As a result of the mass immigration, in contrast to earlier waves of immigration from China, more women and entire families had come into the country, which led to the Chinese being less assimilated and more likely to retain their cultural independence. In an article published by King Vajiravudh under a pseudonym, he referred to the Chinese minority as Jews of the East .
King Vajiravudh also created some new social associations, for example the Wild Tiger Corps (1911) or a kind of scout movement (1912).
In 1912 a conspiracy was uncovered. The conspirators had heterogeneous goals and no clear program, were inspired by the successful republican revolution in China , and they included many members of the army of Chinese origin. The king cracked down on the conspirators and had many of them sentenced to long prison terms. The military and navy, once pillars of royalty, had become a challenge. In 1917 there was another attempted coup, which also failed.
After resigning as Minister of the Interior in 1915, Prince Damrong Rajanubhab , an uncle of the king, became the first Thai person to devote himself seriously to the history of the country. To this day he is considered the "father of Thai history". His writings were shaped by historicism and positivism . Damrong adapted the presentation of the story to a proto-nationalist narrative, embellished and glorified the position of the Siamese, especially towards the Burmese, whom he labeled as hereditary enemies. The view shaped by Damrong is still part of the official history policy and is taught in schools.
When the First World War broke out, Siam was surrounded by two Entente powers . Any partisanship for the Central Powers would have been dangerous. Siam therefore initially opted for neutrality and, when the Entente victory became apparent, it declared war on the Central Powers, confiscated German property in Siam, expelled all citizens of the Central Powers and sent 1,300 soldiers to France to go to war. Thus, after the end of the war, Siam was one of the victorious powers. After long and tough negotiations, Foreign Minister Prince Devawongse Varoprakar achieved an end to extraterritorial jurisdiction and a new customs law. However, this had no economic impact. Siam remained a supplier of raw materials, imported industrial goods and the profits usually flowed abroad.
When King Vajiravudh died in 1925, there was a certain dissatisfaction with the monarchy among the country's intelligentsia. Although Vajiravudh gave important posts to the non-aristocracy, there was no transformation of the political institutions. The expensive, luxurious and sometimes dissolute lifestyle of the monarch also aroused displeasure.
Successor to King Prajadhipok (Rama VII.) Established a new institution, the Supreme State Council. It was occupied by influential members of the royal family. Since the establishment of a constitutional monarchy was increasingly demanded and discussed in the country's elite , he had a constitution drawn up , which, however, was not implemented due to opposition in the royal house itself.
The global economic crisis also hit Siam hard at that time. The price of Siam's most important export, rice, fell. As a result, farmers' incomes and government revenues also fell. Against the background of these social and economic difficulties, a coup d'etat took place in 1932, as a result of which the king had to submit to a constitution.
Transition to constitutional monarchy
It was a small group of former students from the emerging bourgeoisie (who all had their studies in Europe - mostly Paris -), supported by some military, who overthrew the absolute monarchy on June 24, 1932 in an almost non-violent coup , also called the "Siamese Revolution". The group, which called itself Khana Ratsadorn (“ People's Party ”) or “Sponsor”, gathered officers, intellectuals and bureaucrats, some of whom represented very different ideas and who were only united by the common rejection of the absolute monarchy.
The "sponsors" installed a constitutional monarchy with Prajadhipok as king at its head - a corresponding constitution was promulgated on December 10th of that year (which is why December 10th is a public holiday in Thailand ). On the same day, the experienced and rather conservative judicial officer Phraya Manopakorn Nititada , who had been provisional prime minister since June 28, was appointed prime minister. By choosing a head of government who did not belong to its group, the “People's Party” wanted to avoid the suspicion that it had only carried out the overthrow in order to come to power itself. However, the overthrow of the monarchy did not lead to free elections and political associations remained forbidden. The bureaucracy and the military shared power in the National Assembly . The constitution was added to the monarchist state ideology (“nation, religion, king”) as a fourth pillar.
In the following time it became clear how heterogeneous the group of "patrons" was and it broke up into several rival wings, especially that of senior officers, that of junior officers and that of civilians. For the thought leader of the liberal and civil wing, Pridi Phanomyong , simply changing the form of government was not enough. He wanted a profound change in the country's social and economic system. To this end, he presented an economic plan in January 1933, which became known as the “yellow notebook”. In it, he proposed nationalization of farmland, industrialization by public companies , general health care and pension insurance, among other things . The king, the rather conservative Prime Minister Phraya Manopakorn, but also the high officers in the “People's Party” around Phraya Songsuradet and even Pridi's college friend and colleague Prayun Phamonmontri felt this communist and they attacked the plan sharply.
Fearing that Pridi's liberal wing, which had the majority in the National Assembly, might decide on the plans, Phraya Manopakorn dissolved parliament in April, declared a state of emergency and partially repealed the constitution, which was not yet a year old. He passed a law against communist activities, which was directed less against the almost insignificant Communist Party of Thailand than against the supposedly communist projects of Pridis. However, the younger officers of the "People's Party" resisted the coup- like actions of Phraya Manopakorn and they undertook a counter-coup in June 1933 , which was also joined at the last moment by the highest-ranking officer of the "People's Party", Phraya Phahon Phonphayuhasena .
After the fall of Phraya Manopakorn, Phraya Phahon became the new prime minister. The younger officers of the People's Party, especially their leader Phibunsongkhram, played a decisive role in his government . Pridi Phanomyong was acquitted of the charge of communism, but most of his economic plan was not pursued. Only some of his ideas, such as the expansion of elementary schools and industrialization with state-owned companies, were gradually implemented. In 1933, Thammasat University in Bangkok was founded with Pridi's significant participation. With its liberal self-image, it has remained a symbol of freedom and democracy to this day. At the same time, the nationalist faction in the People's Party , led by Phibunsongkhram and oriented towards the totalitarian ideas of Italy, Germany, Japan, but also the “Young Turks” ( Kemal Ataturk ), strengthened .
In October 1933 the royalists tried to return to power and Prince Boworadet launched a military uprising against the constitutionalist government. This brought Siam to the brink of civil war. However, the government troops under Phibunsongkhram managed to put down the rebellion. King Prajadhipok had not supported the royalist uprising and tried to come to terms with the "People's Party". However, when he realized after a constitutional conflict with the government that no compromise could be found with them, he abdicated in 1935 and went into exile in England, where he died in 1941. Since Prajadhipok was childless, he was followed by his nine-year-old nephew Ananda Mahidol , who was still in school in Switzerland. A three-member Regency Council took over the business on his behalf.
Nationalism under Field Marshal Phibunsongkhram
In 1938 Colonel Phibunsongkhram , an open supporter of Mussolini and Hitler, became Prime Minister. By 1942 he issued a series of cultural ordinances (ratthaniyom) , which reflected the desire for social modernization, but also an authoritarian and exaggerated nationalist spirit. First he changed the country name from Siam to Thailand (Prathet Thai) in 1939 . This was directed against the ethnic diversity in the country (Malays, Chinese, Laotians, Shan etc.) and is based on the idea of a "Thai race", a pan-Thai nationalism, whose program is the integration of the Shan , the Laotians and other Tai -Peoples , for example in Vietnam , Burma and southern China in a "Greater Thai Empire". Further decrees required citizens to refer to themselves only as "Thai", pushed back the use of regional dialects and other languages, demanded reverence for the flag, the national and royal anthems, the purchase of Thai products, and the representation of foreign interests Treason equal. Chinese names had to be changed to Thai, and candidates for the military academy had to prove that they were “thoroughbred” Thais. Finally, the use of western clothing and customs (including hats for men and women, gloves and high heels for women; the man should kiss the woman before going to work) was prescribed.
The crushing defeat of France by Germany in World War II was now the welcome time for the Thai leadership to launch an attack on the French colony of Indochina . This began in 1940 with minor clashes and culminated in a military conflict in 1941. Although this suffered a heavy defeat in the sea battle of Ko Chang , it dominated on land and in the air. The Japanese Empire , at that time already the dominant great power in Southeast Asia, took on the role of mediator. The negotiations ended the Franco-Thai War with Thai territorial gains in the French colonies of Laos and Cambodia . To celebrate the victory, Phibun proclaimed himself field marshal, had himself called phu nam ("the leader") and cultivated a personality around him.
Second World War
The Japanese expansion in 1941 (see Pacific War ) put Thailand in a precarious position. The Thais initially allied with the Japanese when they took control of Indochina. Thai forces occupied approximately 25,000 square miles of Battambang Province , an area lost to French Indochina in 1907. The official assignment took place with the support of the Japanese on August 21, 1941 in Saigon .
Due to its strategically important location between the then British colonies of Malaya and Burma , Japan put pressure on Phibun to let his troops march over Thai territory. After Japan had conquered almost all of Southeast Asia, Thailand signed an alliance treaty with Japan in December 1941. Convinced that Japan would win the war, Phibun formed a formal military alliance in early 1942. As a result, Thailand declared war on Great Britain and the United States . However, the Thai ambassador to the USA refused to deliver the relevant document. However, the Thai army occupied parts of the northern Malay states and was thus the direct opponent of the United Kingdom and had to deliver 1.5 million tons of rice as reparation after the end of the war . Entry into the war led to a final break between Pridi Phanomyong and Phibunsongkhram. With his supporters, Pridi founds a resistance movement against the Japanese, which allied itself with the Seri-Thai movement led by Seni Pamoj (Thai ambassador to the USA) . The Japanese army stationed 150,000 soldiers in Bangkok and in the western province of Kanchanaburi , through which the strategically important railway ( called the Death Railway ) was to be carried over the Mae Nam Khwae Noi (Khwae Noi River, "River Kwai"). It was built from June 1942 to October 1943, and over 90,000 people died.
Contemporary history
End of war and post-war period
In 1944 Phibun was forced to resign. Then began a politically troubled time. Three major political camps emerged. Left and progressive liberal forces around Pridi Phanomyong formed the Sahachip party, which was particularly strong in the northeast ( Isan ) and linked to the Central Labor Union . Royalist conservatives, representatives of the nobility and large estates opposed the Democratic Party . Sections of the military who still adhered to Phibunsongkhram and did not want to accept their disempowerment by civilians founded the Thammathipat party ("rule of the Dharma "). In September 1945, Thailand was named back in Siam. By renouncing the conquests during the Franco-Thai War and the Second World War, the country was not treated by the United States as an enemy of the war. In May 1946 the country got a democratic constitution. Unlike before, after this all members were elected directly by the people. Civil servants and soldiers were excluded from political office.
On June 9, 1946, the young King Ananda Mahidol died under circumstances that have not yet been clarified. His 18-year-old brother Bhumibol Adulyadej was suddenly faced with the task of taking over the throne. The Security Council recommended approval of Thailand's application for admission to the United Nations in Resolution 13 of December 12, 1946; the country was admitted on December 16.
Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX.)
King Bhumibol (1927–2016) studied natural sciences in Switzerland . For his new tasks, however, he changed direction and graduated in politics and law in 1951. He was previously crowned king on May 5, 1950. Since then he has directed numerous development projects, in particular for the irrigation of underdeveloped parts of the country, and took care of hardship and problems in the country. This has earned him the greatest sympathy and respect, including admiration, and the monarchy great prestige and influence. In 1987 the king was nicknamed "The Great" after a referendum.
Authoritarian Governments (1948 to 1973)
In 1947 the civilian government was overthrown by another military coup. Field Marshal Phibun ruled again. From June 24, 1949, the official name of the state was again Thailand. Phibun approached the United States in the course of the Korean War and sent (on behalf of the United Nations) Thai troops to Korea. Shortly before King Bhumibol returned to Thailand from his studies in Switzerland, the leading military in a "silent coup" suspended the constitution. So they eliminated any influence of the king or parliament. Against the background of the beginning Cold War and the close alliance with the USA, around 1000 members of the Thai peace movement, to which many communists and Chinese immigrants belonged, were arrested in November 1952, but also the poet Kulap Saipradit , students of Thammasat University and the Wife and son of the exiled Pridi Phanomyong. In 1954, Thailand became a member of the US-initiated SEATO , which had its headquarters in Bangkok, and remained so until 1975. The governments of the USA and the Thai military cultivated intensive contacts in the following decades, which later developed in the course of the Vietnam War for the Americans paid off.
The dictatorship of Phibun was overthrown by a coup d'état by Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat , who initially had elections organized by a transitional government and then took over the government himself in October 1958 as part of an authoritarian "revolution". All parties were banned between 1951 and 1955 and 1958 to 1968. In 1959 a new provisional constitution with greater powers for the head of government was enacted. However, Sarit not only acted brutally against political opponents, he also endeavored to develop the country, especially the rural areas. He extended compulsory schooling to seven years and founded new universities to meet the great need for teachers and other skilled workers. He operated a departure from economic development by state-owned companies in favor of market economy principles. The Thai economy grew rapidly in the 1960s.
The field marshal had an excellent relationship with the young King Bhumibol Adulyadej. He promoted popular veneration for the monarch as a means against the threat of communism. Many royalist rites, which had been abolished after the end of the absolute monarchy in 1932, were reintroduced and the image of the king as a benevolent father of the country was propagated. The role that Bhumibol played in the further course of history, which goes far beyond representative functions, goes back largely to this phase. After Sarit's death in 1963, he was succeeded by his deputy, Field Marshal Thanom Kittikachorn , at the head of the government.
From the mid-1960s, the state and the armed units of the banned Communist Party of Thailand (KPT) waged war against each other. The government fought against irregulars of the "People's Liberation Army" in Isan , who were supported by the People's Republic of China . In 1965, during the Vietnam War , the government granted the US the right to use airfields. The Thai armed forces were also among the largest contributors to the so-called Free World Military Forces , which fought on the side of the United States in Vietnam. In 1967, 40,000 American soldiers were stationed in Thailand. The designation of Thailand as an area for rest & recreation (R&R; "rest and relaxation") during the war contributed significantly to the development of the country as a tourist destination (but also to " sex tourism ").
In 1968 there was a constitutional reform with an additional chamber for parliament. Elections were held in 1969. After a brief phase of democratic rights, Field Marshal Thanom suspended the constitution after a coup on November 17, 1971, and switched off parliament.
Between military government, democracy and "semi-democracy" (1973 to 1988)
In June 1973, mass demonstrations for democracy began , originating from the universities and in which up to 500,000 people took part. On October 14th, the army escalated its brutal approach, killing 77 people and injuring over 800. On the same evening, the king took action. He urged the military rulers into exile and appointed Sanya Dharmasakti , the independent rector of Thammasat University , as prime minister. After the re-admission of the parties in 1974 and the subsequent elections, Seni Pramoj became prime minister. His government collapsed after a few months and his brother Kukrit , who headed a competing party, succeeded him in office. The new constitution curtailed the government's ability to intervene. Under Kukrit, Thailand established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China , abandoning those with Taiwan . Internally, Thailand had to defend itself against guerrillas in the province of Nan and suppress secessionist tendencies in the Muslim south ( Yala , Narathiwat , Pattani ). In the years that followed, the country suffered not only from the consequences of the oil crisis , but also from the influx of refugees from the former French colonies ( French Indochina ). About 300,000 people were housed in camps in the northeast.
In terms of foreign policy, Thailand had to react to the communist takeover in Laos , Vietnam and Cambodia . The fear of the domino effect led to the extreme rejection of left-wing and progressive forces at home by the military, influential sections of government and society. The army and the Ministry of the Interior supported right-wing paramilitary movements such as the “ Red Buffalo ” and “ Village Scouts ” and the anti-communist propaganda organization Nawaphon . These hunted left parties and politicians, active students, trade unions and farmers' organizations.
The military increased its pressure on the civilian government. After the massacre at Thammasat University , in which at least 46 left-wing students and democracy activists died, Prime Minister Seni Pramoj dissolved parliament and handed power to a military junta under Admiral Sangad Chaloryu . After the defeat of the democracy movement, the influx of communist insurgents increased even further. Left-wing intellectuals and activists also joined them. The “People's Liberation Army” had over 6,000 fighters and the KPT claimed to have a million sympathizers. The government declared half of all provinces to be communist infiltrated. 1976–1977, right-wing lawyer Thanin Kraivichien served as Prime Minister. This one was a favorite of the king. His fanatical anti-communism went too far even for the military and he was replaced by General Kriangsak Chomanan . In the following period, however, the military shared their power with civilians and formally maintained the constitutional structures.
Kriangsak tried to improve relations with the socialist powers China and the Soviet Union as well as the states of the region. This enabled him to end foreign support for the insurgents at home. In March 1980 General Prem Tinsulanonda was appointed Prime Minister. In 1982 he offered the fighters and activists of the KPT an amnesty, which many accepted and returned to society. Prem began to liberalize economic policy and reactivated the parliamentary system after the adoption of a new constitution in 1983, in which the National Assembly was supported by an appointed Senate. The direct military presence in public disappeared. With the support of the king, Prem managed to present himself as moderate and win the elections, but ultimately his government remained characterized by authoritarian features. The system of government can therefore be described as "semi-democracy". In 1988 the general resigned after unrest. Parliament was dissolved and free elections took place, after which the military initially withdrew from daily politics.
Democratization process with setbacks (1988 to 2001)
On August 4, 1988, Chatichai Choonhavan , who had already held ministerial posts in previous governments, became prime minister after his party's electoral victory. Thai foreign policy changed under Chatichai. Economic relations were sought with its neighbors, especially with Myanmar . “Turn battlefields into markets” was the new guiding principle in international relations. Support for the ethnic minorities in Myanmar was discontinued and the “Cold War” policy against the neighbors had become obsolete. At the end of the 1980s, the economy was booming, with growth rates of up to 13%. Economic output shifted further from agriculture to industry and focused heavily on export. Thailand was counted to the second generation of the tiger states (or " panther states "). The infrastructure was greatly expanded during this time. For the first time, many villages received power supply and telephone connections. Many Thais moved from the countryside to the cities anyway. Bangkok developed into a cosmopolitan city with high-rise office buildings and city highways, but also chronically congested streets.
Chatichai was overthrown on February 23, 1991 in a military coup by Generals Sunthorn Kongsompong and Suchinda Kraprayoon and other generals of the fifth year of the Chulachomklao Military Academy . They called themselves "National Peace Keeping Council " ( National Peace Keeping Council - คณะ รักษา ความ สงบ เรียบร้อย แห่ง ชาติ , short NPKC - รส ช ). The generals accused the overthrown government of massive corruption. On March 2, 1991, businessman Anand Panyarachun was appointed prime minister by the NPKC, which he held for about a year. His anti-corruption measures were very popular, but the military clique did not approve of them. Therefore, after another election in March 1992, one of the leaders of the coup, General Suchinda Kraprayoon, was appointed Prime Minister of Thailand on April 7th, although he was not an elected MP. All protests against this manifest manipulation of the political system were rigorously suppressed. This led to a pooling of all opposition forces, including some prominent politicians, academics, labor leaders and students. Under the leadership of the former Governor of Bangkok, Major General Chamlong Srimuang , the largest march that had ever been seen in Bangkok was held in May 1992. The military was brought up and a curfew was imposed. The attempt by the military to break up the event resulted in several demonstrators being shot on their way from Sanam Luang to the Democracy Monument. According to official information, there were 52 dead and more than 150 people were missing. This incident went down in the country's history as Black May . Following these incidents, King Bhumibol Adulyadej intervened to prevent further bloodshed. Suchinda resigned as prime minister on May 24, 1992 and went into exile.
The royalist Anand Panyarachun was then reappointed by the king as prime minister for the transitional period until elections could be held again in September 1992. After a successful election victory for the Democratic Party of Thailand, Chuan Leekpai became Prime Minister of Thailand on September 23, 1992 . After the general election in July 1995, Chuan was replaced by Banharn Silpa-archa from the Chart Thai party . He headed an unstable " 7-Eleven coalition" made up of seven parties and eleven inner-party groups, which in the eyes of their critics saw government business as a self-service shop. Banharn became famous for the fact that he spent a large part of the Thai road construction budget in his home province of Suphan Buri as transport, later interior and finally prime minister . Due to the scandals, Banharn's party and his ruling coalition disintegrated and he had to call early elections for November 1996, in which the Chart Thai party lost massively.
The winner of the election was the New Hope party of retired General Chavalit Yongchaiyudh , who became the new head of government. During Chavalit's reign, a new constitution came into force on October 11, 1997, the most liberal constitution in the history of Thailand and one of the most democratic that has ever existed in Southeast Asia. Because it was the first time an assembly elected by the people had drafted the constitution and representatives of civil society had contributed intensively to it, it was given the nickname “People's Constitution”. In the same year, however, there was also an economic crisis in Thailand . The value of the baht fell rapidly and Thailand was close to national bankruptcy. Since part of the co-ruling Thai Citizens' Party (the so-called Kobra Group) split off and changed sides, Chavalit had to resign on November 6, 1997. He was succeeded by the chairman of the Democratic Party, Chuan Leekpai, who had been prime minister from 1992 to 1995. He tried to stabilize the country's economy with the help of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
The Thaksin Shinawatra era (2001 to 2006)
From the elections on February 9, 2001, Thaksin Shinawatra emerged as the new Prime Minister. He took over the office from Chuan Leekpai and was confirmed in this office by an overwhelming majority in the elections on February 6, 2005 - as the first democratically elected head of government in Thai history. Already in the first term of office, Thaksin's government implemented key election promises of his populist Thai-Rak-Thai party (TRT): debt moratorium for farmers, state-financed microcredits at the local level, general access to the health system. This made him very popular, especially among the rural population in the north and northeast of the country.
However, after taking office, Thaksin soon showed authoritarian tendencies. In 2003 almost 2,500 people died in a “war on drugs”. According to human rights organizations, much of their extrajudicial executions were victims. Thaksin's uncompromising approach to the Muslim-Malay separatists in the southern provinces led to a resurgence of the previously dormant conflict, which was increasingly fought with terrorist means by the separatists and Islamists, but also with considerable violence by the Thai security forces (including against civilians). The conflict in southern Thailand continues to this day, with over 6,500 people dead by the beginning of 2016. Thaksin was also accused of obstruction of the press and personal enrichment of his family. A group called the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD), also known as “yellow shirts” because of the color of their clothing that expresses loyalty to the king, organized protests that lasted for months, which led to early elections on April 2, 2006.
Thaksin's party Thai Rak Thai won the elections, but all major opposition parties had boycotted the polls. In the end, the parliament could not be constituted because the required quorum was not achieved in some constituencies and the TRT deputy was not elected. The country's Supreme Court ruled on May 8, 2006 that the April 2 election was invalid. New elections were now scheduled for October 15, 2006.
Putsch, military rule and political crisis (2006 to 2008)
On September 19, 2006, there was a bloodless coup . Police and military forces under the command of the Army Commander-in-Chief, Sonthi Boonyaratglin , occupied Bangkok and ousted the acting Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, who was at the UN General Assembly in New York at the time. The coup plotters suspended the 1997 constitution, dissolving parliament, the government and the constitutional court . The junta appointed itself "Council for Democratic Reforms under the Constitutional Monarchy". Thaksin declared a state of emergency from New York, but that did not change his disempowerment. The freedom of the press was restricted. The king urged the population to remain calm and to follow the orders of the new rulers. On September 20, he pledged his support for the coup plotters.
The “Council for Democratic Reforms”, headed by General Sonthi, governed with the help of decrees. On October 1, 2006, he set up a transitional government led by the retired General Surayud Chulanont , whose cabinet was sworn in by the King on October 9, 2006.
A new constitution designed to allow a return to democracy was drawn up by a constitutional council appointed by the military leadership. It grants the military more influence, promotes smaller parties and limits the influence of elected politicians in order to prevent a concentration of power on one person and one party as under Thaksin. On August 19, 2007, the Thais approved the draft constitution in a referendum. However, the participation was only 60%, the proportion of votes in favor was 57%. There were more no-votes than yes-votes in 24 provinces in the north and northeast.
After initial hopes for quick reforms and a solution to the conflict in the south of the country, dissatisfaction with the transitional government manifested itself again in the course of 2007: some were too moderate, while others were fundamentally reluctant to have a government influenced by the military. The heterogeneous coalition of opponents of the constitution consists mainly of former Thaksin supporters as well as staunch democrats who fundamentally reject the participation of the military in the government, since Thailand is returning to a "managed democracy". Some of them formed the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD), which later became known as the "Red Shirts" movement.
On December 23, 2007, elections took place, from which the Party of People's Power (PPP), a successor party to Thaksins Thai Rak Thai, emerged as the winner under Samak Sundaravej . The Democratic Party with its top candidate Abhisit Vejjajiva became the second strongest force.
From May 2008, protests began by critics of the government around the People's Alliance for Democracy (“Yellow Shirts”) and the opposition Democratic Party, who accused Prime Minister Samak Sundaravej of corruption and increased consumer prices and called for his resignation. Government supporters, on the other hand, organized themselves in the UDD ("Red Shirts").
At the end of August 2008, several thousand “yellow shirt” protesters occupied the seat of government and temporarily the southern Thai airports of Phuket, Krabi and Hat Yai for several days. Union and pension fund members went on strike on Bangkok's rail links. After violent clashes between supporters and opponents of the government, with one person dead, the government declared a state of emergency in Bangkok on September 1, 2008 . The state electoral commission had meanwhile accused the People's Power Party (PPP) of fraud in the election on December 23, 2007 , and had filed a ban against them.
On September 9, 2008, the Constitutional Court ruled that Samak was dismissed from office for being an employee of a commercial television cookery program which, under the Constitution, is inconsistent with the post of prime minister. On September 17, 2008, his deputy Somchai Wongsawat , a brother-in-law of Thaksin, was elected as the new prime minister.
After the election, the protests of the government opponents continued unchanged. At the beginning of October 2008, Chamlong Srimuang, a leading representative of the “yellow shirts”, was arrested. On October 7, 2008, further riots broke out in Bangkok. After protesters occupied the parliament building, the police tried forcibly to break up the demonstrations. Two people were killed and more than 400 people were injured. Deputy Prime Minister Chavalit Yongchaiyudh assumed responsibility for the police operation and announced his resignation. His demand for the military to intervene in the government crisis with a coup was rejected by army chief Anupong Paochinda.
On November 20, 2008, an opposition protester was killed in an attack with a hand grenade in front of the beleaguered parliament building. The PAD then stepped up its actions; more than 50,000 people gathered in Bangkok for rallies. On November 25, 2008, the Suvarnabhumi International Airport was occupied by demonstrators, and two days later, the Don Mueang domestic airport as well . The entire flight operations then had to be discontinued. More than 250,000 travelers could not leave the country. A bomb attack on Don Mueang domestic airport on December 2, 2008 injured over 20 people, one of whom was fatal.
On the same day, the Constitutional Court ordered the dissolution of the ruling party PPP and two of its coalition partners for electoral fraud. Prime Minister Somchai and other leading members of the PPP were banned from political activity for five years. Somchai then announced his resignation. The remaining PPP MPs reorganized as the Pheu-Thai party . Chaovarat Chanweerakul is used as a transitional premier.
On December 15, 2008, the previous opposition leader Abhisit Vejjajiva was elected Prime Minister after some members of the government factions defected to the Democratic Party camp. The Abhisit Vejjajiva government included the new Foreign Minister Kasit Piromya, a politician who had expressly endorsed the airport blockade and supported the actions of the PAD.
Red Shirt Riots (2009 and 2010)
At the beginning of April 2009, the ASEAN summit in Pattaya , Thailand had to be canceled after hundreds of “red shirt” protesters who were critical of the government stormed the conference venue. They called for the resignation of Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva, who, in their opinion, had not legitimately come to power. This then declared a state of emergency. The political unrest also spread to the capital Bangkok over the next few days, where two people were killed in street fights with police and soldiers.
In the spring of 2010, the “red shirt” protests began to flare up again. Security forces took massive action against the demonstrators, resulting in deaths and injuries. In mid-March 2010, red shirt protesters flocked to the capital, Bangkok, to put pressure on the Abhisit government. Around 150,000 protesters occupied the Phan Fa Bridge in the old town. On March 17, demonstrators spilled their own blood, which they had previously filled into containers, in front of Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva's official residence to symbolically make a sacrifice for democracy. On March 29, two-day negotiations between the government and the protesters failed and the rallies were announced to continue. On April 3, red shirts occupied the centrally located Ratchaprasong intersection in the Pathum Wan district in the immediate vicinity of various shopping centers and hotels. The intersection remained the center of demonstrations until the security forces attacked.
At the beginning of May, Abhisit Vejjajiva presented a plan for early elections in November due to the ongoing protests. The opposition agreed in principle, but in return demanded a fixed timetable for the dissolution of parliament.
In a renewed escalation, one of the leaders of the protest movement, Seh Daeng, was shot dead. After a comprehensive offensive by the army, in which several people were killed again, the leaders of the government opponents surrendered, whereupon the situation calmed down again.
Yingluck Shinawatra government (2011 to 2014)
The parliamentary elections on July 3, 2011 were described by international observers as largely free and fair. The Pheu-Thai party, led by Yingluck Shinawatra , sister of the former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra , won an absolute majority. Nevertheless, she entered into a coalition government with several smaller parties. Opponents of the Pheu-Thai party accused Yingluck of being a puppet of her brother who fled law enforcement. Thaksin himself referred to them as his "clone".
The second half of 2011 saw the largest flood disaster in 50 years ( floods in Thailand in 2011 ). Large areas along the Mae Nam Chao Phraya were flooded, killing almost 400 people. There was property damage of around 11.8 billion euros with global effects.
The Yingluck government quickly implemented two of the Pheu Thai Party's main plans: tax breaks for car and home buyers and a guaranteed minimum price for rice. Ten percent of government spending went into the latter program alone, which led to a rapidly increasing national debt and overflowing stores of rice that was unsaleable on the world market.
In August 2013, the parliament passed a constitutional amendment with the votes of the government factions, according to which the Senate should be fully elected by the people (so far only half of the senators have been elected, the other half have been appointed). However, this change was rejected as inadmissible by the Constitutional Court. Also in August 2013, an amnesty law was introduced into parliament, which would also have allowed Thaksin Shinawatra to return to Thailand with impunity.
This triggered a wave of mass protests by the opposition from the end of October 2013 , which on some days more than 100,000 people joined. On December 9, 2013, the Prime Minister had parliament dissolved and new elections scheduled. In January 2014, the opposition movement, which did not demand any new elections but rather no more specific “reforms” by an unelected “People's Council”, tried to completely paralyze public life in Bangkok. The holding of the February 2 election was so severely disrupted by militant government opponents that it was declared invalid by the Constitutional Court. In shootings and bomb attacks on the opposition demonstrations and counter-demonstrations by government supporters, as well as clashes with the police between late November 2013 and May 2014, 28 people died and over 800 were injured. On May 7, the Constitutional Court removed Yingluck and several of her ministers from office.
Military rule since 2014
In this political stalemate, the Army Commander-in-Chief, General Prayut Chan-o-cha , declared martial law on May 20 and launched a coup d'état against the government two days later. As a reason he gave the desire to put an end to political violence and to want to pacify the country again. The military junta declared “Make the people happy again” as their motto. A transitional constitution was passed two months after the coup. According to this, various bodies set up by the junta should draft a new permanent constitution and, after a phase of "reconciliation", the country should return to democracy. However, the original schedule for this was repeatedly delayed. The “National Reform Council”, which is dominated by the military, failed to make an initial draft for a new constitution in September 2015. A second draft was finally adopted in a referendum in August 2016 with 61% of the vote (approx. 55% turnout; a public campaign against the draft was prohibited). The date for parliamentary elections has been postponed several times. A parliamentary election was held in March 2019 . Before that, however, the military junta had secured continued influence through a Senate appointed by it and the commitment of future governments to a “national strategic plan”.
See also
literature
Generally
- David K. Wyatt : Thailand - A Short History. 2nd Edition. Yale University Press, New Haven et al. 2003, ISBN 0-300-08475-7 . (also: Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai 2004, ISBN 974-9575-44-X )
- Chris Baker , Pasuk Phongpaichit: A History of Thailand. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005, ISBN 0-521-75915-3 .
- Barend J. Terwiel : Thailand's Political History. From the 13th Century to Recent Times. River Books, Bangkok 2011, ISBN 978-974-9863-96-1 .
- Volker Grabowsky : Brief History of Thailand CH Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-60129-3 . (Review)
Individual epochs
- Early history
- Pisit Charoenwongsa, MC Subhadradis Diskul : Thailand . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag (Archaeologia Mundi series), Munich 1978, ISBN 3-453-35022-7 .
- Sukhothai
- AB Griswold: Towards A History Of Sukhothai Art . The Fine Arts Department, Bangkok 1967 (oh. ISBN)
- Betty Gosling: Sukhothai Its History, Culture, And Art . Asia Books (Oxford University Press), Bangkok 1991, ISBN 974-8206-85-8 .
- Ayutthaya
- Derick Garnier: Ayutthaya - Venice of the East . River Books, Bangkok 2004, ISBN 974-8225-60-7 .
- Dirk Van Der Cruysse (Michael Smithies Transl.): Siam And The West - 1500-1700 . Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai 2002, ISBN 974-7551-57-8 .
- Richard D. Cushman (David K. Wyatt Ed.): The Royal Chronicles Of Ayutthaya . The Siam Society, Bangkok 2000, ISBN 974-8298-48-5 .
- Chakri dynasty
- Prince Chula Chakrabongse of Thailand: Lords Of Life, The Paternal Monarchy Of Bangkok . Alvin Redman, London 1960.
- Michael Steinmetz: Siam in 2475 (1932): The end of absolute monarchy . Southeast Asia Studies of Humboldt-University, Berlin 2000, ISSN 1432-2811 .
- Modern times
- Daniel Fineman: A Special Relationship: the United States and military government in Thailand. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1997, ISBN 0-8248-1818-0 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c d https://web.archive.org/web/20140619164018/http://thailand.prd.go.th/ebook/inbrief/page.php?cid=1
- ↑ Volker Grabowsky: Introduction. In: Regions and National Integration in Thailand, 1892–1992. Harrassowitz-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1995, p. 4.
- ↑ Joyce C White: Dating Early Bronze at Ban Chiang, Thailand. ( Memento from December 16, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) In: J.-P. Pautreau, A.-S. Coupey, V. Zeitoun, E. Rambault (Eds.): From Home erectus to the living traditions: Choice of papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Bougon, 25th – 29th September 2006. Chiang Mai 2006 , Pp. 91-104, here p. 99
- ^ Ian C. Glover, Bérénice Bellina: Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo: The Earliest Indian Contacts Re-assessed. In: Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-Cultural Exchange. ISEAS Publishing, Singapore 2011, pp. 17–45.
- ^ Bérénice Bellina, Ian Glover: The archeology of early contact with India and the Mediterranean World, from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD. In: Southeast Asia. From Prehistory to History. Routledge Shorton, London / New York 2004, p. 71.
- ^ Dougald JW O'Reilly: Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. AltaMira Press, Lanham MD 2007, p. 182.
- ↑ Thak Chaloemtiarana: Thailand. The Politics of Despotic Paternalism. Cornell Southeast Asia Program, Ithaca NY 2007, ISBN 978-0-87727-742-2 , p. 247.
- ↑ Wyatt: Thailand. 2003, p. 10.
- ↑ Wyatt: Thailand. 2004, p. 24.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 9-11.
- ↑ K. Wenk: The history of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, p. 128f.
- ↑ Wyatt: Thailand. 2004, p. 22.
- ↑ Wyatt: Thailand. 2004, pp. 28-29.
- ↑ Wyatt: Thailand. 2004, p. 25.
- ^ David K. Wyatt: Thailand. A short history . Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai 1984, ISBN 974-7047-44-6 , p. 31.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 4–8, p. 13.
- ↑ a b K. Wenk: The history of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, p. 129f.
- ↑ Wyatt: Thailand. 2004, p. 30 ff.
- ↑ Manuel Sarkisyanz: The cultures of continental Southeast Asia. Wiesbaden 1979, p. 75ff.
- ↑ Silajaruek Pokhun Ramkhamhaeng. the so-called inscription I. King Ramkhamhaeng's stone stele : all four sides photographed and translated into both modern Thai script and English.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, p. 14ff.
- ↑ P. Chomchai: The Development of Human Rights. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, pp. 260f.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 11-13.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 17-37.
- ↑ K. Wenk: The history of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, pp. 131-137.
- ↑ Grabowsky: Brief History of Thailand. 2010. Section “The Isan as part of the Lao Empire of Lan Sang”, pp. 85–90.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 38-43.
- ↑ K. Wenk: The history of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, pp. 129-131.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 43-48.
- ↑ K. Wenk: The history of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, pp. 139-140.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 48-54.
- ↑ K. Wenk: The history of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, pp. 140-143.
- ↑ Supang Chantavanich: From Siamese-Chinese to Chinese-Thai. Political Conditions and Identity Shifts among the Chinese in Thailand. In: Leo Suryadinata: Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore 1997, pp. 232-259, at p. 234.
- ↑ H. Fessen, H. Kubitscheck: Thai history. Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 86-103.
- ↑ K. Wenk: The history of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, pp. 143-147.
- ↑ Volker Grabowsky : Regions and National Integration in Thailand, 1892-1992. Harrassowitz-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1995, p. 2.
- ^ David K. Wyatt : Thailand. A short history . 2nd edition, Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai 2004, pp. 178–170.
- ↑ Grabowsky: Brief History of Thailand. 2010, pp. 136-138.
- ↑ Thanet Aphornsuvan: Slavery and Modernity. Freedom in the Making of Modern Siam. In: Asian Freedoms. The Idea of Freedom in East and Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 177.
- ↑ Helmut Fessen, Hans-Dieter Kubitscheck: Thai history . Münster / Hamburg 1994, pp. 103-108.
- ↑ K. Wenk: The History of the Kingdom of Thailand. In: Jürgen Hohnholz (Ed.): Thailand - Geography - History - Culture - Religion - State - Society - Politics - Economy. Tübingen 1980, pp. 147-149.
- ↑ Kuhonta: The Institutional Imperative. The Politics of Equitable Development in Southeast Asia. Stanford University Press, 2011, p. 146.
- ^ Baker, Pasuk: A History of Thailand. 2009, p. 145.
- ↑ Fineman (1997), pp. 2f.
- ↑ Wyatt: Thailand. 2004, pp. 298-304.
- ^ BJ Terwiel : Thailand's Political History, from the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 to Recent Times . River Books, Bangkok 2005, ISBN 974-9863-08-9 , p. 288.
- ↑ Chris Baker, Pasuk Phongpaichit: Thailand's Boom and Bust. Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai 1998, p. 260.
- ↑ Yoshinori Nishizaki: Suphanburi in the Fast Lane. Roads, Prestige, and Domination in Provincial Thailand. In: The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 67 (2008), No. 2, pp. 433-467.
- ^ Head of government as an illegal television chef. In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . September 9, 2008 (accessed September 13, 2008).
- ↑ Thailand: Somchai new prime minister. ( Memento of December 4, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) In: Kurier . September 17, 2008.
- ^ Government critics arrested in Thailand. In: Basler Zeitung . October 5, 2008.
- ↑ Thailand: Government appeased: Situation under control. In: Der Tagesspiegel . October 8, 2008.
- ↑ Thailand's ex-vice calls for a military coup. In: The world . October 10, 2008.
- ↑ Thailand: Explosion exacerbates the crisis. In: Wiener Zeitung . November 20, 2008.
- ↑ Protesters occupy second airport in Bangkok. In: Spiegel Online . October 27, 2008.
- ↑ cf. Tilmann Bünz: Tense Waiting at Airports in Bangkok The Silence Before the Storm ( Memento from December 15, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) at tagesschau.de, November 30, 2008.
- ↑ One died and about over 20 injured by a bomb explosion at Don Mueang. ( Memento from December 2, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) In: The Nation. December 2, 2008 (Internet Archives).
- ↑ Thailand's government leaves - to come back. In: The world . December 2, 2008.
- ↑ A foreign minister can't just shoot his mouth off. ( Memento from September 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) on: asia one news December 25, 2008.
- ↑ See chaos at ASEAN meeting in Thailand - summit canceled, state of emergency lifted ( memento of April 13, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) at tagesschau.de, April 11, 2009.
- ↑ See power struggle in Thailand Two dead in protests in Bangkok ( Memento from April 16, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) at tagesschau.de, April 13, 2009 (accessed on April 14, 2009)
- ↑ Five dead in clashes in Bangkok. ( Memento from April 14, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) In: Zeit Online. April 10, 2010.
- ^ Peaceful agreement in Thailand. In: The world . May 5, 2010.
- ↑ Die Zeit online: Red shirts lose leaders (German, accessed December 24, 2011)
- ↑ Army offensive forces Red Shirts to surrender. In: Spiegel Online. May 19, 2010.
- ↑ The battle for Bangkok is not over. on: diepresse.com , May 19, 2010.
- ↑ Steve Finch: How Rice is Causing a Crisis in Thailand. In: The Diplomat. November 10, 2012
- ↑ Chairat Charoensin-o-larn: Thailand in 2012. A Year of Truth, Reconciliation, and Continued Divide. In: Southeast Asian Affairs 2013. ISEAS Publishing, Singapore 2013, p. 297
- ^ Peter Warr: The changing face of Thai populism. In: East Asia Forum. June 12th, 2013
- ↑ Christoph Hein: The generals in Bangkok cement their power. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . August 7, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016 .
- ↑ Manfred Hornung: Thailand's New Constitution - The Junta Triumphs. Heinrich Böll Foundation, September 28, 2016.
Web links
- Cast of Battambang in 1941 ( Memento from September 7, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) (English, PDF; 793 kB)
- Information on the history of Thailand on the website of the Thai embassy in Germany
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