History of the Philippines

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Little is known about the history of the Philippines in western countries. The island archipelago was created around 38 million years ago by geotectonic forces. Today it is divided into two biogeographical zones, the Palawan-Busuanga-Mindoro Archipelago, which had a land connection to Borneo and the Sunda Islands during the Ice Ages until 18,000 years ago, and the Luzon-Visayas-Mindanao Archipelago, which has existed for around 160,000 years Years apart from the land masses of Southeast Asia. Contrary to what was previously assumed, the island archipelago was never isolated or cut off from the rest of the world. The first groups of the genus Homo reached the archipelago about a million years ago, it was Homo erectus . The first modern humans probably settled on the archipelago around 70,000 years ago. For about 7000 years the Philippines has been exposed to constant immigration and settlement by Austronesian peoples. Little is known of the Stone Age Filipinos to this day.

The Iron Age began around 4000 years ago and ships suitable for the ocean have been known since the third century AD at the latest. Since the Middle Ages, the Philippines developed into a center of Southeast Asian trade with China and Java, Sumatra and the Moluccas. The first proven contact with the west was the landing of the Portuguese navigator and circumnavigator in Spanish service Ferdinand Magellan on the island of Homonhon southeast of the island of Samar , which is dated March 16, 1521. He named the islands Islas de San Lázaro - Saint Lazarus Islands, because on this day the festival in honor of Saint Lazarus was celebrated. With the expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi in 1565, the first permanent Spanish settlements were founded on the islands of Cebu . More settlements followed as the Spanish colonists moved north and reached Manila Bay on the island of Luzon . As a result, numerous new towns were founded in and around Manila, heralding the era of the Spanish colonial empire that ruled the Philippines for more than three centuries.

Filipino locals on an outrigger boat

Pre-colonial period

Early history

The excavation sites in the Cagayan Valley , located in the north of the island of Luzon, refuted the earlier assumption that the Philippines were a largely isolated archipelago. The oldest artifacts were dated to 709,000 years ago and come from Homo erectus . The oldest fossils of anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) were discovered in 2007 in the Callao Cave in the Sierra Madre and dated to an age of approx. 67,000 years. Another archaeological site is in Central Luzon, it is called Arubo . The excavations were machined on both sides hand axes recovered, they will be the basis of their processing Acheuléen dated.

The finds of human fossils indicate that the Philippines was settled continuously since the late Middle Paleolithic . According to early archaeological finds, the first human, known by Anthony Acevedo, an American expert on Filipino archeology and anthropology , as the "Dawn Man", literally means "Man of the Dawn", came from one of those around the Philippines Islands of asia. Well-preserved fossil finds are, for example, the 22,000-year-old skull of a "Stone Age Filipino" who was discovered by Robert K. Garcia, an American anthropologist at the National Museum, on May 28, 1962 in the Lucy Cave on Palawan and has since been named " Tabon Man ”wears.

A woman of the Ati ethnic group on Boracay , a Negritos tribe

The site in the Tabon Caves of Palawan indicates that the island was settled 47,000 years ago, which is concluded from the fact that the hunters and gatherers living there can be shown to have used stone tools . The finds in the Cagayan Valley suggest that the first humans probably around 70,000 BC. Reached the Philippines . Whether the island archipelago was first settled via land bridges has been highly controversial since the discoveries in northern Luzon. It can be proven that the ancestors of today's Negritos , who are assigned to the Protomalayes, immigrated to the island archipelago about 40,000 years ago via Palawan and the Sulu Archipelago. The well-known tribe of the nomadic Aeta is said to have emerged from these immigrants.

The two most common hypotheses assume that the Austronesian language probably first developed in southern Taiwan until 7,000 years ago . In the period from 6000 to 2500 BC Tribes of the Austronesian language group, coming from Taiwan, immigrated to the Philippines and spread further south and east to the islands of the Pacific and westwards across Southeast Asia to Madagascar , which they reached about 1500 years ago. All native Filipino languages ​​belong to the western branch of the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian language family. This indigenous population adhered to animistic beliefs , which to this day, sometimes with varying degrees of intensity, have a lasting influence on the beliefs of Filipinos. The petroglyphs of Angono are documented as visible evidence of this indigenous population .

Various ethnic groups in the Philippines had trade relations with the states of China and Japan early on . Various states in Southeast Asia established trading posts on the islands of Mindanao and Cebu, for example the neighboring empires in what is now Malaysia and Indonesia , and the Chinese branch Tondo was established in Manila Bay on Luzon in the 9th century . There was also a strong cultural connection to India , which can be traced back to between the 9th century and the 12th century.

The social and political structure of the individual population groups in the widely scattered islands developed in a basically similar pattern. Only the sedentary rice farmers of northern Luzon did not develop any concept of land ownership.

A Tagalog couple of the maharlika , the noble caste, from the 16th century

The smallest administrable unit of a settlement was the barangay , originally a related group that was headed by a Datu . However, the social structure of the Philippines varied from region to region. The Tagalog society consisted of the aristocratic Maginoo , from whom the Datus, Rajas and Lakans were recruited. Her followers were the timawa (free landowners) and the warrior class of the maharlika . These were followed by the addicts, the alipin . With the Alipin there were different categories with different status: There were partly landless field workers, on the other hand those who lost their status as a free man due to indebtedness or were punished for a crime. The prisoners of war were outside of society, but they could be integrated into society.

Influences from other Asian cultures

Around the year 700, today's Philippines came under the cultural influence of the Buddhist-Hindu empire Srivijaya . Whether the areas of what is now the Philippines actually adopted the Hindu religion in any form has not yet been proven. Politically, however, the Philippines did not belong to the Sri Vijaya Empire, which had its center on Sumatra and established its power over the Strait of Malacca , the Sunda Strait and parts of Java.

The first written document in Filipino history is the Laguna Copper Plate ( Laguna Copper Plate Inscription ), dated around the year 900 and written using the Indonesian Kawi script in a strange mixture of Sanskrit , Old Javanese, Old Malay and Old Tagalog . The copper plate was checked and deciphered by the Dutch scientist Antoon Postma. It is a document on which the ruler of Tondo forgives a man named Namwaran from his debts to the Prince of Dewata. The document states that at that time the region was administered by Senapati Jayadeva (Senapati = Admiral in Sanskrit). It is unclear whether the forerunner of the Luzon Empire had already emerged at this time or whether Tondo was a trading post of a Malay city-state or kingdom.

The Baybayin script, which is still used by the Mangyan today, is probably derived from the Kawi script. Baybayin is a syllabary which is written from top to bottom, mostly on bamboo. During the missionary era, the Spanish missionaries used Baybayin to spread Christian doctrine, but Baybayin was gradually replaced by Roman script by the 17th century.

From the 10th century direct trade relations between the island of Mindoro (that Mayi ( 麻 逸 ) are mentioned in Chinese documents ) and China are documented, in 971 merchants in Canton are documented for the first time . Previously, the entire exchange of goods with the Chinese Empire was via Champa in what is now Vietnam . The Philippine Islands were very well known in Song , Yuan, and Ming Dynasty China . In the 11th century, trade and political contacts with Puduan ( 蒲 端 ), today the region around Butuan City , and Sanmalan ( 三 麻 蘭 ), today the region around Zamboanga City, are mentioned. The merchants were not only traders, but also ambassadors of their respective liege lords, who made political contacts with the imperial court of the Chinese dynasties. Chinese traders who traveled to Mindoro, the Calamian Islands and the Sulu region from the Song Dynasty onwards also acted as diplomats. The Filipino merchants used the Balangay type of boat on their trade routes, with which they could also reach Malacca , Borneo, Ternate and Myanmar . Another type of ship that was used was the junk ; one was discovered off the island of Busuanga and called the Lena Shoal Junk . It is now believed that Tondo was a major center for the junks trade of the Middle Ages and acted as a hub for Southeast Asian trade with China.

After the fall of the Southern Song Dynasty, there was a strong wave of emigration from China to the island of Luzon under the leadership of Admiral Zhang Shijie. After 1279 they established the Luzon Empire , which is also described in Chinese sources as the Little Song Empire. The chronicles of the Ming emperors show that the kings of the Luzon Empire established diplomatic and trade relations with the imperial court in Beijing in 1373. Nothing is known of the territorial size of the empire, the center of the empire was demonstrably tondo. After the Ming Dynasty cut off Chinese foreign trade at sea in 1433, it experienced its golden age, which lasted until the mid-16th century. The Luzon Empire was the only official trading partner in overseas trade with China at the time.

In the era of the first Ming emperors, other parts of the archipelago were subject to tribute, and territorial disputes in the Sulu region were also settled at the Imperial Court in Beijing in 1417. So are the rulers Baduge Badala ( 巴 都 葛 叭 答 剌 ), the king of eastern Sulu, Mahalatu Gelamading ( 麻 哈 剌 吐 葛 剌 麻 丁 ), the king of western Sulu and Baduge Balabu ( 叭 都 葛巴 剌 卜 ) , Wife of a deceased tribal chief from the mountainous region of Mindanao as a visitor to the imperial court. The first cultured pearl farms in the Sulu region have come down to us from this time.

From the 14th century, parts of the Philippines came under the cultural influence of the Javanese Majapahit Empire, which had brought Sumatra, Java and Bali under its control and was strongly influenced by Indian Hinduism. However, the cultural influence of Srivijaya and the Majapahit Empire never went so far that Hinduism or Buddhism was adopted as a religion in the Philippines. Significant finds from the Middle Ages were unearthed in the archaeological excavation site in Butuan City , which documented the extensive trade relations.

Emerging Islam

Traders and Muslim missionaries from Malaysia and Indonesia brought Islam to the Philippines . The Islamization of the islands is due to the power of the then Muslim India .

1380 reached Arabian Sharif Maqdum as an Islamic missionary to Mindanao . He paved the way for Raja Baginda , who took possession of the Jolo Islands along with Malay settlers. More Malay conquerors followed, who founded Muslim sultanates in southern Mindanao and thus promoted Islamization, which, however, largely tolerated the old customs of the local people. One of them, Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor , a member of the Malacca royal family , invaded central Mindanao in the mid-15th century. He married a local princess there and founded the Sultanate of Maguindanao in 1475 . Here he began to spread Islam in and around his territory.

During this time Manila was also founded as a fortress at the mouth of the Pasig River by the Malay Muslim Rajah Sulayman . He comes from Brunei , where he was called Raja Muda, and was the son-in-law of the then ruling Sultan of Brunei, Abdul Kahar.

Although Islam spread to Luzon , ethnic religions continued to be the predominant religion in the islands of the Philippines. Muslim immigrants introduced a political structure in their areas of influence, which provided for individual territorial states, which were ruled by Rajas or sultans . These supreme leaders were in turn placed above the datus. But neither the conception of individual political states, nor the strategy of a limited territorial distribution, as with the settled farmers of Luzon, could spread beyond the region in which they had established themselves. When the Spaniards reached the islands in the 16th century, the majority of the estimated 500,000 residents lived in settlements that corresponded to the category of a barangay.

Early Spanish Colonial Period - 1565 to 1762

Ferdinand Magellan
Santo Nino, oldest church in the country in Cebu City

Arrival of the Spaniards and the conquest of the Philippines

On March 16, 1521, the Portuguese navigator Fernão de Magalhães (Ferdinand Magellan), sailing under the Spanish flag, discovered the southern Philippine islands for the European cultural area. When Magellan landed on the island of Homonhon , he claimed the land for Spain and named it Islas de San Lazaro (Islands of Saint Lazarus), since on that day the festival in honor of Saint Lazarus was celebrated. After advancing further into the archipelago, he and his people intimidated the local tribal chiefs and Rajah Humabon, the king of Cebu , with the artillery fire of the entire expedition fleet and threats of war, and converted the Rajah and many of his followers to Christianity . Magellan burned a village that refused to Christianize. In a raid at dawn on the tribal leader of the neighboring island of Mactan , who was not ready to submit , Magellan was killed along with many of his men , presumably at the hand of the warrior chief Lapu-Lapu himself.

Between 1525 and 1542 there were four other Spanish expeditions to the Philippines. Ruy Lopez de Villalobos , commander of the expedition of 1542, gave the islands of Samar and Leyte the name Las Islas Filipinas , after the then Spanish Infante , later King Philip II. Later this name was adopted for the entire archipelago and the Philippines received its present Names. At the end of 1564, Miguel López de Legazpi sailed for the Philippines on the orders of the Viceroy of New Spain and reached the Visayas on April 27, 1565 . There he built several colonial settlements, allied himself with some chiefs like Datu Sikatuna and fought other tribes like those of Raja Tupas . In 1567 Spanish and Mexican soldiers built the fortress Fuerza de San Pedro on Cebu .

On June 23, 1569, the Spanish officially took possession of the archipelago and Legazpi sent two of its commanders, Juan de Salcedo and Martín de Goiti , further north. These reached Manila Bay in 1570 . The village of Tondo was under the rule of the Luzon Empire and Maynilad, today's Manila , was under the rule of the allied Muslim rulers Rajah Matanda and Rajah Sulayman at that time . They explained to the Spaniards that they were friends of the Spaniards, but quickly realized that the Spaniards wanted to replace their rule. A battle broke out on May 24, 1570, in which the Spaniards prevailed but later returned to Panay to report to Legazpi. In May 1571 he led a fleet of 17 galleons that transported several hundred warriors from the Visayas region and around 120 Spaniards. He landed in Maynilad on May 16, 1571 and took possession of the area for the Spanish Crown. On June 3, 1571, the decisive battle of Bankusay took place , in which the Spaniards succeeded, thanks to their numerical superiority and their superior weapon technology, in wrestling the native associations. In August 1571 Legazpi founded Manila and installed a city council with the help of the former local rulers who were now forcibly converted to Christianity. In the same place where the old fortress of Rajah Suleymans was, the fortified Spanish old town of Manila, which was called Intramuros and was only accessible to Spaniards , was now built . Due to its location, access to Manila Bay and the food resources in its vicinity, Manila subsequently became the capital of the new Filipino colony and the center of military, religious and economic activities on the islands, where Legazpi ruled as the first governor . Spanish rule was quickly expanded over the coastal regions of the Luzon archipelago and the Visayas, subjugating numerous independent communities that had previously had no central leadership. - Until around 1646, however, Spanish rule over the Philippines was not secured. There were repeated revolts, such as the Maharlika uprisings in the province of Pampanga in 1586 , in Tondo in 1588 and the Sangley rebellion in 1603. Numerous Spanish branches and settlements were also repeatedly destroyed by natural disasters such as earthquakes, conflagrations, volcanic eruptions and typhoons had to be rebuilt. The most famous volcanic eruption during this period was that of Parker in January 1641 on the island of Mindanao. It achieved a strength of over five on the volcano explosion index .

Furthermore, from the year 1600 onwards, Dutch pirates repeatedly invaded the waters of the island archipelago and severely disrupted the trade routes. The first encounter between Spanish and Dutch galleons in the waters of the Philippines took place on December 12, 1600 and ended with the sinking of the San Diego . With the strengthening of the Netherlands at the end of the Eighty Years War , they tried to conquer the island archipelago in 1646. This attack on Spanish sovereignty was repulsed in the five naval battles of La Naval de Manila . This event consolidated the authority of the Catholic Church and, with it, Spanish rule on the northern and central islands of the archipelago for the next 250 years and is passed down to this day as the miracle of Mary of the Victory of October 1646. In the Philippines, this event is known as the Miracle of La Naval de Manila and is celebrated every second Sunday in October.

Roman Catholic proselytizing

Soon many were monks and missionaries to the Philippines and they succeeded very quickly, much of the former Islamic or animist population to Christianity to convert. The missionary work was mainly carried out by Catholic orders: Dominicans , Franciscans (OFM) , Augustinians and Jesuits .

In contrast to the Central and South American countries, where the Spaniards met with considerable resistance from the Indians in many places and therefore introduced Christianity with "fire and sword" , the missionaries in the Philippines also succeeded in converting the population to Catholicism quickly because Philip II of Spain had ordered not to repeat the mistakes of the American continent.

Since the missionary work in the Philippines could not be done by force, Catholicism in the Philippines mixed with pre-Hispanic traditions. The missionaries also used the old Baybayin script to spread Christian texts. In 1611 the Universidad de Santo Tomas was opened in Manila as the oldest Catholic university in Asia.

The Muslims in the south, mainly on Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago , referred to by the Spanish as Moros , could never be completely subjugated by the colonial rulers. The Muslim groups responded to the attacks by the Spaniards and their native allies with raids on settlements in Luzon and the Visayas that were under Spanish control. For its part, the Spanish military undertook periodic military campaigns against the Muslim territories, which, however, did not bring any decisive success until the middle of the 19th century. The Spanish estimated in 1625 that about 100,000 Moros lived in Mindanao (about 12% of the total population). The Igorot , hill tribes in northern Luzon, also resisted Christianization on a lasting basis.

According to Filipino historians, without the arrival of the Spaniards in the mid-16th century, the Philippines would have been completely Islamized, as is the case today in Indonesia or Malaysia.

Early colonial administration and economics

Local chiefs were involved in a kind of indirect rule in the missionary work and administration of the Filipino colony. The so-called principalía arose from them , a rural local leadership class with corresponding privileges.

The Spanish ruling class of the colony preferred to stay in Manila and left the administration in the countryside largely to the local principalía and the local Spanish priests and monks. Most of the time, the Spanish clergy were the only Spaniards who understood the native languages, and unlike the Spanish colonial officials, they mostly spent their entire lives in the Philippines. There were also a few Spanish colonial officials who ruled the provinces with the help of the local principalía .

Lands, called encomiendas, were given to Spanish soldiers and seamen, and the indigenous population, with the exception of the principalía , who could buy themselves out, were obliged to serve the encomenderos. In addition, the local people were charged with paying taxes to the encomenderos. The collection of these taxes was usually done by Spanish clergymen, the principalía or the local Spanish officials.

The main source of income for Spain, however, was the Philippines' role as a trading post between China and Mexico . The Philippines was administered as a province of New Spain until Mexican independence in 1821. Through the mercantilist organized galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco , which started in 1565 and ended in 1813, many Chinese came to Manila as traders at the time . Due to the galleon trade and the administrative assignment of the Philippines to the viceroyalty of New Spain, there were also close ties to Mexico.

The once trains running in galleons brought from Mexico predominantly silver bars and coins, while on the way back Chinese goods, mainly silk and other textiles to Mexico were taken. Every year about 50 tons of silver were shipped from Acapulco to Manila, which found its way to China as a means of payment for Chinese goods. For this reason, the galleons were often attacked by English and Dutch privateers, sometimes successfully captured. The sheer volume of the galleon trade made Mexican silver pesos the de facto currency in China. In 1750, the excess of silver in China led to inflation and a devaluation of silver.

Late Spanish Colonial Era - 1762 to 1898

Spanish colonial rule weakened

The first major turning point in Spanish rule over the Philippines was the British invasion from 1762 to 1764 , a chapter at the end of the Seven Years' War . The British succeeded in temporarily occupying parts of the Philippine archipelago and the capital Manila. In 1762 the Palaris uprising broke out in the province of Pangasinán , which was initially successful and could not be suppressed until 1765. In the Ilocos region of the Philippines, native rebels under Diego Silang took the opportunity to revolt. The British allied with him, but he did not get the support he had promised. After the murder of Silang, the uprising was continued by his wife Gabriela until she was arrested and executed in September 1763. As a result of these events, it became clear to many Filipinos that Spanish sovereignty could not last forever. In addition, thousands of people were kidnapped by Moro pirates because the Spanish were too busy with the British to maintain control of the southern islands. The Peace of Paris forced the British to withdraw in 1764 and renewed Spanish rule over the Philippines.

After the British invasion, the Philippines gradually entered world trade. First, a tobacco monopoly was established in the Ilocos region with the aim of producing tobacco for export. In addition, the country was opened to private traders and investors. In 1785 a royal trading company was founded to cultivate and export sugar, coffee, indigo and pepper.

Mexico gained independence in 1821 . The Philippines, which until then had been formally administered as part of the Viceroyalty of Mexico, were now administered directly from Spain . In this context, there was a revolt in Manila in 1822 by Spanish Creole soldiers of Mexican origin who defended themselves against a disarmament order from the colonial government. The Creoles were the first to call themselves Filipinos , a term that later spread to the inhabitants of the archipelago.

The British occupation and the Creole revolt made the locals aware of the growing weakness of Spain. The independence of Mexico and the Creole revolt also aroused longing for independence. Mexico even sent secret agents to the Philippines to assist in efforts to achieve Filipino independence, but this turned out to be a little premature.

Due to the increasing independence of the countries of Latin America in the 19th century, the old forms of state organized trade became obsolete, so that in 1834 free trade was introduced. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1867, a new era of goods exchange with Europe began . Due to the increasing contact with the outside world, new political ideas now also reached the Philippines.

Belgian requests to buy the Philippines (1875) were rejected by the Spanish side, as were similar German requests (1885).

Ilustrados and the emergence of a national consciousness

In the course of the 19th century, due to economic growth, the new elite of the ilustrados formed , which was composed primarily of Chinese and Spanish mestizos and also members of the principalía . An important characteristic of this elite was the higher education, which they often enjoyed abroad and attained professions in medicine and law. During their studies, which they undertook primarily in Europe, this elite came into contact with the new ideas that were circulating there in the 19th century. Of particular importance for the Philippines was the secularization movement within the Catholic Church, which was founded by Pedro Pelaez in the 1850s. The movement called for the Filipinization of the Church and a restriction of the power of the Spanish religious orders. The movement was shaped by much more liberal ideas that demanded equality between Filipinos and Spaniards.

National hero José Rizal

In 1868 a revolution took place in Spain while the liberal Carlos María de la Torre took over the governorship of the Philippines. He implemented appropriate reforms, in particular the abolition of press censorship. However, this brief episode ended in 1871. After a mutiny Filipino soldiers in a shipyard in Cavite in 1872 were a gomburza mentioned group, there was a Filipino of three priests and were known for their liberal ideas publicly with the garrote executed. Liberal ilustrados were exiled or left the Philippines. The execution of the three local priests increased resentments against the power of the Spanish-ruled monastic orders.

In 1872 the propaganda movement was founded by exiles in Europe. Their goal was not the Filipino independence, but an autonomy of the Philippines and a participation in the Spanish Congress, through the admission of Filipino seats in the Cortes . They were joined in 1882 by the physician and philosopher José Rizal . He wrote two novels in Europe, Noli me tangere in 1886 and El Filibusterismo in 1891, which grappled with the strongly ecclesiastical Spanish rule and were therefore banned in the Philippines. Nevertheless, the reading found numerous readers in broad circles of society.

In 1892, on his return to the Philippines, Rizal founded La Liga Filipina and asked the Spanish government to implement social reforms. Immediately after the founding of this non-violent organization, however, Rizal was arrested and exiled in Dapitan , Mindanao , which led to the collapse of the league.

The Katipunan Liberation Movement and the Revolution of 1896

A revolutionary flag of the Philippines (1897)

In 1892 the nationalist protest movement Katipunan was formed under the leadership of Andrés Bonifacio , a former member of the Liga Filipina who, unlike many other participants in this league, came from a humble background. Bonifacio was finally elected Supremo (leader) of the Katipunan in 1893 . The members of the Katipunan, which resembles a secret lodge in its organization, are largely recruited from parts of the lower class. Deodato Arellano was elected first president of the organization in October 1892. Jose Rizal was invited to join the Katipunan in 1896, but he refused because he could not approve of their violent implementation of their goals.

On April 10th and 11th, 1895, the leading members of the Katipunan met in the Pamitinan Cave and probably decided there to implement the will for a revolution, these were Emilio Jacinto , Andres Bonifacio, Faustino Mañalac , Francisco Del Castillo , Valeriano Dalida , Pedro Zabala and Guillermo Masangkay . They left their names in the rock of the cave under the main motto Viva la Independencia Filipinas . In August 1896, after Spanish clergy had learned of the existence of the katipunan, a war of liberation against the Spanish colonial power broke out. The events around August 23rd are called Sigaw sa Pugad Lawin ( German: Ruf des Falkennestes, English: Cry of Pugadlawin ) in the Philippines . José Rizal was arrested by the Spanish colonial powers at the end of 1896, accused of participating in the Katipunan (he was honored by them as honorary president without his knowledge) and executed. Rizal is still celebrated today as a national hero. Filipino nationalists, however, revere the revolutionary Bonifacio far more than the reformist-oriented Rizal.

Emilio Aguinaldo (approx. 1898)

At first, the Katipunan's revolution against the Spanish colonial power was quite successful. However, there were internal power struggles between the faction of the Katipunan founder Andrés Bonifacio and the faction of Emilio Aguinaldo , a very successful Katipunan general from Cavite . The power struggles in Katipunan resulted in Bonifacio being killed on May 10, 1897 at the behest of Aguinaldo. This led to the fact that the Spaniards gradually gained the upper hand and Aguinaldo, along with Pedro Paterno and other loyal followers, withdrew to the caves of Biak na Bato . It was here that the first Provisional Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Biak-na-Bato, was constituted in July 1897 .

On December 14, 1897, after bitter fighting, an armistice was agreed with the Spaniards and Aguinaldo went into voluntary exile in Hong Kong after he and his men were paid money and granted an amnesty . The uprising continued in many provinces. The Hong Kong Committee was established in Hong Kong to assist the revolutionaries in the struggle in the Philippines by briefing a broad public on what was going on in the Philippines during the final stages of the revolution and the Filipino-American War.

American Colonial Era - 1898 to 1946

Failed independence and war with America

On April 25, 1898 declared Spain the United States to war . In the Spanish-American War , the US was concerned with control over the remaining colonial territories of Spain and access to Asian markets through the Philippines. On May 1, 1898, the outdated Spanish fleet was completely destroyed in just a few hours by the US Asia Squadron under Commodore George Dewey in the Battle of Manila Bay .

After Dewey's victory, a blockade was imposed on Manila Bay. Even so, warships from Great Britain , France , Germany and Japan came to Manila Bay. The German contingent was larger than that of the United States until June 12, when Admiral Diederichs arrived in Manila. The so-called Manila incident occurred between the Americans and the Germans. It was only when the British sided with the USA that the German ships withdrew.

On May 19, 1898, Aguinaldo returned to Manila to continue the revolution with the hoped-for American support. Among other things, there had been talks between Aguinaldo and American diplomats in Hong Kong who expressed their sympathy for the Filipino desire for independence, but without making any promises. He resumed the leadership of the revolution, which, among other things, led to Filipino soldiers defending in Spanish service to the Katipunan.

On June 12, 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo declared the Philippines to be independent in Kawit and read the declaration of independence drawn up by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista . A revolutionary congress was then called in Malolos , as large parts of Manila were still under Spanish control. In large parts of the country, the Spaniards were subject to Aguinaldos troops. In July they besieged the fortified Spanish city center of Manila, known as Intramuros . However, the Spaniards refused to surrender to the Filipinos as they had orders to do so only to the Americans.

On August 13, 1898, an American attack on Intramuros (see Battle of Manila (1898) ) took place, in which Aguinaldos people helped, but his troops were not allowed to enter the fortified city. On August 14, 1898, the Spanish surrendered and the United States announced the establishment of a military government.

Filipino dead on the first day of the Filipino-American War, National Archives Photo No. 111-RB-1037

In December, in the Peace of Paris , also known as the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam were handed over to the United States for $ 20 million. Cuba was formally granted independence, but initially remained under US occupation.

On January 21, 1899, the members of the Revolutionary Congress passed the Malolos Constitution and on January 23, the First Philippine Republic was constituted.

On February 4, 1899, American soldiers shot a Filipino soldier who was crossing a bridge into American-controlled territory in Manila. This was the beginning of the Philippine-American War . However, the Americans never made a formal declaration of war and Aguinaldo was declared a bandit.

At first it was a conventional war, but after the assassination of the talented General Antonio Luna in June 1899, the Philippine armed forces were weakened and had to continue the war using guerrilla methods from 1900.

Approx. 12,500 American soldiers fought an estimated 80,000–100,000 rebels over the next three years. 4,324 American soldiers and approximately 20,000 Filipino combatants and an estimated 250,000 to one million Filipino civilians died. Twenty-six of the 30 American generals who served in the Filipino-American War were veterans of the Indian Wars . Accordingly, there were a great many atrocities against civilians, which were confirmed by the Red Cross and which were also reported in the US press at the time.

In 1901 Aguinaldo was captured with the help of Filipinos who defected to the Americans. On April 20, 1901, he issued a statement calling on the Filipino Resistance to stop fighting. On April 29, Baldomero Aguinaldo and numerous other generals of the revolutionary army surrendered . However, other revolutionaries continued under General Miguel Malvar , who did not have to surrender until April 1902. The US then declared the conflict to be formally over, although individual guerrilla groups held out for almost a decade.

The Philippines became a US colony under a governor general . English was made the official language and English teachers were brought into the country.

In the south of the Philippines, the Islamic Moros had so far been neutral. This changed when the United States established Moro Province in their territories. There was another ten years of bitter war with the Moros. This resulted in both American atrocities against the Moros (including by General John Pershing ) and the dreaded Sabil assassins, in which a Moro fighter attacked American soldiers with swords in order to kill as many as possible while sacrificing his life .

The long road to semi-autonomy

On January 20, 1900, the Schurman Commission was appointed by McKinley. It was supposed to work out proposals for a transition to a civil colonial administration, these results were presented in January 1901. In March 1901, William Howard Taft was appointed chairman of the Taft Commission and sent to the Philippines to establish a civilian colonial administration. He built the Supreme Court of the Philippines, of which Cayetano Arellano was appointed first chairman in 1901. In 1904 the Philippines were first represented at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and represented by Epifanio de los Santos , among others . Preparations have also been made to create a bicameral legislature . The Taft Commission formed modeled on the US system, the upper house and the Philippine Assembly - the lower house, the first elections to the latter were carried out on 30 June 1907, and on October 16 Manila Grand Opera House constituted. From 1913 onwards, under Woodrow Wilson , there was a change in American politics. While the previous Republican governments saw the Philippines as an eternal US colony, the Wilson administration decided to take measures to bring the Philippines to independence and help establish a stable democracy. This included support in building a public school system and a constitutional state.

In 1916 the Philippine Autonomy Act, or Jones Law , was passed. A Philippine House of Representatives and a Philippine Senate were established. In the 1920s there were repeated times of cooperation and times of disputes over competencies between the American governors general and the Philippine legislature . During this time, a public service was established that was increasingly taken over by the Filipinos.

During the American colonial era, there were significant improvements in the country's education and health services. The literacy rate doubled and reached 50% in the 1930s.

In 1934, the Philippine Independence Act or Tydings-McDuffie Act was passed by the American Congress. It provided for the draft of a Philippine constitution and a ten-year transition period until Philippine independence. During this transition period, a kind of semi-autonomy was planned for the Philippines, in which US forces were to remain stationed in the country and the American president, among other things, was to retain suzerainty over the Philippine armed forces.

The Independence Act also classified all Filipinos living in the United States as foreigners and established an immigration quota for Filipinos in the United States. In 1935, the United States also passed the Filipino Repatriation Act , which was intended to induce Filipinos in the United States to return to the Philippines and made family reunification in the United States more difficult.

After the Philippine legislature had accepted the Tydings-McDuffie Act, the planned ten-year transition period to full independence began in 1935. The Philippines received the status of a semi-autonomous Commonwealth , whose president was Manuel Luis Quezón y Molina . The parliament was reduced to a unicameral system, the national assembly. In 1940 a two-chamber system was again agreed and the Commonwealth Congress was established. The Commonwealth government embarked on an ambitious reconstruction program to create the conditions for independence. However, this was hampered by the economic and political environment in Southeast Asia at the time. The Second World War ultimately ruined all reconstruction efforts.

Quezon called on General Douglas MacArthur as a military adviser to build his own Philippine army . McArthur was assisted by Dwight Eisenhower . After McArthur retired as a US general in 1937, Quezon even made him Field Marshal in the Philippine Army. This did not end until Franklin D. Roosevelt put McArthur back into active service in 1941 and appointed commander of the Manila-based Far East Command of the US Forces.

Women's suffrage

In 1933 a law was passed in the House of Representatives which provided women with the right to vote from January 1935 . This law was an addition to Section 431 of the Administrative Code. This addition was linked to the Hare Hawes Cutting Independence Act , which failed to find a majority in the vote.

Before women could actually vote, the 1933 decision was overturned by a 1934 Constituent Assembly that drafted a new constitution that would reflect the Philippines' changed status as a Commonwealth within the United States. This assembly decided to link the introduction of women's suffrage to a successful referendum on this issue. Only women were eligible to vote in this vote, at least 300,000 votes were required for success. Over half a million women registered to vote and 447,725 women voted on April 30, 1937 to give women the right to vote and stand for election at the same level as men. This happened before independence, still under US administration, through the Plebiscite Law, Commonwealth Act No. 34 . It was confirmed upon independence in 1946.

Japanese invasion, occupation and resistance

The Cavite naval port near Manila is on fire after a Japanese attack

After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Japanese occupied the islands in the Battle of the Philippines during World War II . Despite bitter resistance, US and Filipino troops under US command had to surrender on Bataan in April 1942 . In the subsequent death march from Bataan , up to 10,000 soldiers died before arriving in a military prison 100 kilometers away.

In 1942 the communist resistance movement Hukbalahap (popularly known as Huk ) was formed on Luzon under the leadership of Luis Taruc , whose main goal was initially to resist the Japanese occupation. More guerrilla groups formed, but they were allied with the American armed forces.

During the occupation there were atrocities committed by Japanese troops against the civilian population. There were mass shootings, torture and rape. People were burned alive or beheaded with the samurai sword.

In October 1943, with the help of large parts of the Filipino elite, a republic was founded under Japanese care. The president was José P. Laurel . However, this republic had little popular support.

It was not until October 1944 that US troops under the command of General Douglas MacArthur succeeded in recapturing the Philippines with the support of anti-Japanese resistance fighters in five months of fighting (see Pacific War # Philippines ). Because Japanese troops were holed up in Manila, the liberation of Manila lasted until the capitulation of Japan in September 1945, which led to the extensive destruction of Manila (especially the old Spanish old town). About a million Filipinos died in World War II .

American forces fought the communist Hukbalahap . Individual Japanese soldiers did not surrender, but held out in the jungle; the last Japanese soldier ( Nakamura Teruo ) did not capitulate until 1974. As early as October 1945, the first war crimes trials took place in Manila . The Japanese commanders in chief Yamashita Tomoyuki and Homma Masaharu were sentenced to death in a revenge-driven trial. Numerous other proceedings took place up to 1949.

Manuel Quezon's Vice President Sergio Osmeña assumed the presidency of the Philippine government-in-exile after the Commonwealth President's death in the USA. In February 1945 the Commonwealth government was reinstated by the United States. The Philippines became a founding member of the United Nations in the same year as the Commonwealth of the Philippines . Filipino independence was set for 1946 by US President Harry S. Truman , as the aftermath of the war did not allow independence according to the original schedule. The Commonwealth Constitution remained in effect until 1973.

The Philippine Republic

The Philippine Republic before Marcos

On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was formally granted independence . However, the USA had contractually guaranteed the continuation of economic dependency for 28 years. On March 14, 1947, the USA also secured sovereign rights over 23 military bases for a period of 99 years.

After 1946, especially in Luzon, resistance arose against the corrupt pro-American governments under Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) and Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953), primarily through the successors of the anti-Japanese guerrillas, the Hukbalahap ( HUK ). In October 1950 the US-equipped troops of the Philippine Army , led by Defense Secretary Ramon Magsaysay , who was advised by the CIA man and later Vietnam strategist Edward Lansdale , put down the uprisings of the HUK movement.

On August 30, 1951, the Philippines took part in the Korean War at the instigation of the USA and dispatched five battalions . The popular Magsaysay became president in 1953 and died in a plane crash in 1957.

In the 1950s, there was massive, government-sponsored migration of poor farmers to Mindanao to weaken the Hukbalahap uprising. This exacerbated the conflict with the Muslim Moros .

The nationalist-minded President Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961) shortened the lease period for the US bases to 25 years with the option to extend the lease by five years at a time. Its Filipino First legislation favored Filipino entrepreneurs over foreign investors.

In 1963, the Philippines raised under President Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965) due to the establishment of the Federation Malaysia claim to the island of Borneo located Sabah . Sabah was leased to Great Britain in 1878 by the Sultan of Sulu , who handed the territory over to Malaysia in 1963, which still pays the agreed rent to the descendants of the Sultan. The Sabah problem is still open today.

The Marcos period

Ferdinand Marcos

Ferdinand Marcos became president on December 30, 1965 . In 1966 he sent a pioneer battalion to Vietnam to help the United States . In 1967/1968 the expropriation of the peasants and the strong population growth (3.5%) resulted in an unemployment rate of around 20%. The Huk movement was very popular and controlled large areas of central Luzón. Marcos let the communist Hukbalahap fight until they stopped their activities. He was re-elected as the first Philippine president on November 11, 1969.

In 1968, traditional tribal leaders founded the Muslim Independence Movement (MIM). They were responding to the Jabidah massacre of Muslim army recruits who refused to take part in a secret operation to recapture Sabah . Fighting broke out between Moros and Christian settler militias in the south of the Philippines. In 1971 the political scientist Nur Misuari founded the Moros National Liberation Front (MNLF) as a separatist umbrella organization.

1969 founded José María Sison and some former Hukbalahap a Maoist underground army and called it New People's Army ( New People's Army ) or NPA . At times it had about 85,000 fighters.

From January to March 1970 there was student unrest against the corrupt Marcos regime in the Manila region . The students demonstrated against the fact that Marcos was preparing a new constitution that would remove the two-term restriction for a president. Marcos had the unrest bloodily suppressed.

On September 21, 1972, President Marcos declared martial law. Tens of thousands of opponents of the regime were arrested; opposition media were banned.

On January 17, 1973, a parliamentary system was introduced through a new constitution, which in fact served to consolidate the power of Marcos. During martial law, the clashes with the NPA and the MNLF intensified . In 1975, with the help of Libya and the Organization of the Islamic Conference, the Tripoli Treaty was negotiated, which provides for the establishment of an autonomous Muslim region. In 1976, however, there was widespread discontent among the Moros about the outcome of the treaty and the fighting continued. In 1977 the weakened MNLF split and the Islamic Liberation Front of the Moros was founded .

In 1981 martial law was formally repealed. The elections were very dubious and Marcos won with a very large majority.

On August 21, 1983, the opposition leader Benigno Aquino was murdered. The act is blamed on the military. After the fake presidential election of February 1986, more than a million Filipinos demonstrated on EDSA Avenue in Manila demanding Marco's resignation. The Catholic Church supported the demonstrators, after which the demonstrations spread across the country and went down in history as the EDSA revolution . When the military refused to break up the demonstration by force, Marcos was forced to flee to Hawaii in the USA on February 25, 1986. The widow of the murdered Benigno Aquino and opposition leader, Corazon Aquino , became the new president on the same day (until June 30, 1992).

The time after Marcos

In 1987, during the presidency of Ms. Aquino, a new constitution was ratified, in which the Philippines returned to the presidential system.

Pinatubo eruption

Ms. Aquino had to contend with numerous coup attempts, but was supported by her chief of staff, Fidel Ramos , who was elected as the first Protestant President of the Philippines in 1992 .

In 1987 there was another attempt to resolve the Muslim conflict. As a result of the Treaty of Jeddah , the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao was founded in 1989 , but the referendum was boycotted by militant Muslim and Christian groups. During this time the terrorist group Abu Sajaf was formed .

Between June 12 and 15, 1991, the eruption of the Pinatubo volcano on the island of Luzon dropped the average world temperature by 1.5 ° C for three months. The drop in temperature was caused by the large amount of ash and dust that was thrown into the Earth's atmosphere . This was the world's strongest volcanic eruption of the 20th century .

US base at Clark Air Base, covered by volcanic ash

Large parts of the two most important Filipino US bases, Subic and Clark , were also destroyed. The Philippine Senate then refused to extend the 1947 base contract due in 1992. On September 30, 1992, US troops withdrew from their bases in the country, which began eight months earlier due to the volcanic catastrophe.

On September 2, 1996, the Philippine government under President Fidel Ramos (1992–1998) and the MNLF Islamic separatists operating on Mindanao signed a peace treaty that came about with the help of the Organization of the Islamic Conference and Libya . Only Misuari became governor of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao .

However, the Islamic Liberation Front of the Moroz ( MILF ) and the terrorist Abu Sajaf did not participate in this peace treaty. A 1997 truce with the MILF broke up quickly.

On June 1, 1999, the Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA) came into effect, which allows US troops to be stationed again on Philippine soil.

In November 1999, committed New People's Army ( New People's Army , NPA ) the Maoist Communist Party of numerous terrorist acts on the island of Luzon. Around 90,000 human lives have been lost.

Joseph Estrada
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo

President Joseph Estrada (1998-2001) launched a new offensive against the MILF in 2000 and fought the Abu Sajaf, which carried out numerous kidnappings in the same year.

On January 20, 2001, President Estrada was overthrown by rioting after a scandalous impeachment trial. Thereupon Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo 's new president.

In 2002, at the instigation of the Philippine government, the US and subsequently the EU declared the NPA to be an international terrorist organization. In the same year Filipino and US soldiers jointly maneuver in which US special forces are stationed on Basilan near Mindanao to fight the terrorist Abu Sajaf. The argument with the MILF flares up again. To this day, regular maneuvers by the US armed forces and the Philippine armed forces to combat terrorist organizations take place.

In May 2004, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was able to assert herself in the presidential elections, just ahead of her rival candidate Fernando Poe, and was confirmed for a second term. The election took place on May 10, 2004, but after inconsistencies in the counting of votes, the official result was not announced until the end of June. In June 2005 the so-called Hello Garci scandal broke out , in which Arroyo was accused of electoral fraud . However, impeachment proceedings failed.

In the same year there are several bomb attacks in connection with the Muslim conflict, particularly in the south of the Philippines. In 2005 there were three bomb attacks on Valentine's Day, one of them in Manila. The Abu Sajaf confess to the attacks and call it a "Valentine's gift" for President Arroyo. In 2006 there was a bomb attack on a ferry on Jolo , to which the Abu Sajaf also profess.

On February 24, 2006, a coup attempt by parts of the military, alleged by the government, took place . A state of emergency was imposed on the country, and government-loyal military and other security forces secured strategically important places. Demonstrations to mark the 20th anniversary of Marco's fall have been banned, parts of the press have been censored and demonstrations taking place have been violently broken up by the police. On March 3, 2006, the state of emergency was lifted again.

As a result, there has been a dramatic increase in politically motivated murders, mainly of members of left-wing groups and parties, but also of journalists, church workers and pastors as well as committed citizens at the community level, with alleged support or tolerance by parts of the military or other security forces. From January to July 2006, Amnesty International documented at least 51 of these political murders. The Philippine government is under international pressure because of these murders. President Arroyo set up a commission of inquiry to investigate these murders. Until November 2006, however, no results were published by this so-called Melo Commission.

In May 2019, during Rodrigo Duterte's presidency , the Philippines' garbage conflict with Canada culminated .

See also

literature

  • Gregorio F. Zaide: The Philippine Revolution. Manila, 1968 (revised edition)

Web links

Commons : History of the Philippines  - Collection of pictures, videos, and audio files
Wikisource: Philippines  - Sources and full texts

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Thomas Ingicco et al .: Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago. In: Nature . Advance online publication May 2, 2018, doi: 10.1038 / s41586-018-0072-8
    Ancient humans settled the Philippines 700,000 years ago. On: sciencemag.org of May 2, 2018, doi: 10.1126 / science.aau0568
  2. ^ Description of the Arubo archaeological site
  3. ↑ Origins of the Filipinos and their Languages ( Memento of August 3, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
  4. ^ Petroglyphs of Angono on the UNESCO Tentative List
  5. ^ A b c d Philippines: A Country Study , Ronald E. Dolan, GPO for the Library of Congress, ISBN = 0844407488, 1991-3
  6. ↑ Maharlika and the ancient class system Author Paul Morrow (English)
  7. ↑ Pre Kolonial Philippines (English)
  8. ↑ Philippine History MC Halili (2004), Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 57 (English)
  9. ↑ German translation of the copper plate inscription Author: Arnis Birada
  10. ↑ a b Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines (PDF; 223 kB) Author Wang Zhenping (English)
  11. ↑ The history of the Philippines before Magellan (English)
  12. ↑ Lost at Sea by Frank Goddio (PDF; 1.8 MB)
  13. ↑ Luzon Empire (呂宋 國) (1279-1571 AD) (English)
  14. ↑ Lacsamana, Leodivico Cruz (1990), Philippine History and Government (Second Edition ed.), Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 47
  15. ↑ see The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan , English translation of the travel report by Antonio Pigafetta , the chronicler who traveled with Magellan's circumnavigation, pp. 84-103.
  16. ↑ Lacsamana, Leodivico Cruz (1990), Philippine History and Government (Second Edition ed.) Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., page 52
  17. ^ The Battle of Bangkusay: A Paradigm of Defiance against Colonial Conquest Author: Chris Antonette Piedad-Pugay National Historical Institute website. National Historical Institute
  18. ^ Philippine History . DLSU-Manila. Retrieved August 21, 2006.
  19. ↑ The massacre of 1603: Chinese perception of the Spaniards in the Philippines (PDF; 75 kB) Author: José Eugenio Borao National Taiwan University (English)
  20. ↑ The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 Review of Philippine History, p. 216
  21. ^ The story of Our Lady of the Holy Rosary of La Naval ( Memento of February 17, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  22. ^ Stearns 2002
  23. ^ Philippines History . Encyclopedia of Nations. Retrieved August 23, 2006.
  24. ↑ The Palaris Revolt 1762 (English)
  25. ↑ The British Interlude on Multiply ( Memento of the original from September 21, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / history101.multiply.com
  26. ↑ Short biography of Pedro Palaez  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 16 kB)@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.nhi.gov.ph  
  27. ↑ the GOMBURZA ( Memento from July 10, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (English)
  28. ^ Propagandist and First President of the Katipunan
  29. ↑ The Pamitinan Protected Landscape website ( Memento from October 22, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  30. ↑ The Cry of Pugadlawin on Filipino.biz.ph - Philippine Culture
  31. ↑ the history of the Biak Na Bato Pact in Philippine History (English)
  32. ^ The Hong Kong Junta on the National Historical Institute website. National Historical Institute
  33. ^ The First Philippines Republic
  34. ^ The Philippine American War
  35. ↑ UNITED STATES RULE (English)
  36. ↑ Biography of Epifanio de los Santos ( Memento of February 13, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (English)
  37. ↑ The History of the First Philippine Assembly (1907-1916)
  38. ↑ a b c Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 353.
  39. ↑ a b June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 236.
  40. ↑ a b Mina Roces: Is the suffragist an American colonial construct? Defining 'the Filipino woman' in colonial Philippines. In: Louise Edwards, Mina Roces (Ed.): Women's Suffrage in Asia. Routledge Curzon New York, 2004, pp. 24-58, pp. 31-32.
  41. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 307.
  42. ↑ The American Era ( Memento of October 16, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) (English)
  43. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. April 30, 1937, accessed October 5, 2018 .
  44. ^ Prevost, Ann Marie; Race and War Crimes. The 1945 War Crimes Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita…; Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 14 (1992), pp. 305, 319ff
  45. ↑ More recent description of the EDSA revolution of February 1986 ( Memento of February 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive )