Biodiversity of the Philippines

The Philippines

Butterflies of the species Matsutaroa iljai on Negros

Rapala tomokoae on the Kanlaon

The Kalatungan waterfall in Mindanao

The biodiversity of the Philippines is one of the most pronounced on earth. According to Conservation International , the archipelago is one of the 17 megadiversity countries in the world. Due to the endangerment of this diversity, the entire Philippines on land and water is considered a hotspot of biodiversity .

There are large coral reefs and seagrass fields in the sea in and around the archipelago. On the coasts, mangroves form large forests that serve as natural coastal protection and create unique ecosystems. In many regions of the Philippines, large rivers flow into the sea, they form extensive wetlands in the estuaries. Since large areas have different precipitation patterns, the rivers carry sometimes more and sometimes less water. These lead large debris and mud masses into the estuary. Therefore, the natural landscapes are subject to constant change, which contributes to the development of the great biodiversity. Until the early 20th century, an evergreen tropical rainforest covered much of the Philippines. For this reason, around five percent of all known plant species on earth still grow on the island archipelago and it is one of the most species-rich ecosystems on earth. The geotectonic forces also contributed to the biodiversity of the island archipelago. When the numerous volcanoes erupt, they devastate large areas and nature has to recapture extensive fields of ash, lava and mud as habitat, adapting to the given circumstances. Over the millions of years, new habitats with numerous specialized plant and animal species have emerged.

Geography and population

The Philippines are located in the east of Southeast Asia and consist of 7,107 islands with a land area of ​​299,764 km². The archipelago is divided into four archipelagos, Luzon in the north, the Visayas in the center, Mindanao in the south and Palawan in the west. The population was 88.57 million people in 2007, with a population growth of 2.04% per year. Over 60 percent of the population live in coastal areas and around 50 percent of the total population live on the Luzon archipelago.

biodiversity

The Philippines tarsier

Biodiversity is the diversity of all life on earth. This applies not only to the biological and genetic diversity of all living beings, but also to the diversity of habitats, both in natural landscape types and in natural areas that have been redesigned by humans, such as agricultural areas. The wealth of variants within a species also counts. In biology, it depends on which variants of families, genera and species of animals, plants, fungi or bacteria exist and how the individual individuals differ from one another. Because only when the diversity is great can the individual genera and species react quickly to environmental changes, such as climate change. The greater the biodiversity, the more opportunities there are for people to adapt to changes in their environment. This is especially true for agriculture and food production.

As a developing country, the Philippines are faced with almost insoluble tasks when it comes to preserving the diverse natural spaces and genetic diversity. By the year 2000, more than 52,177 species of animals, plants and microorganisms had been identified in the Philippines. 25 plant genera and 49 percent of all non-marine species in the Philippines are endemic. Numerous more species are discovered in the Philippines every year. A total of 194 key biodiversity areas have been identified in the Philippines, 128 on land and 66 in marine areas.

Climate change and biodiversity

Preserving biodiversity and man-made climate change are major challenges in the Philippines. Both factors influence each other; In order to better understand them, a monitoring system was introduced in the Philippines, which is intended to assist in the formulation and implementation of political objectives and laws. Research on this includes both fields. The general problem of climate change and the preservation of biodiversity is that the UN took decisions within the framework of the climate convention that could have serious effects on biodiversity and the local population in developing countries such as the Philippines and thus in part meet the goals of the UN biodiversity convention contradict. These include B. Plans for reforestation with monocultures such as coconut palm plantations, alien and partly genetically modified trees, the large-scale cultivation of cloned biomass plants for energy generation, the fertilization of the seas to stimulate algae growth or even research projects that deal with the sinking of carbon dioxide in the deep sea . The Philippines are now one of the most important producers of bioethanol and biodiesel , which are mainly exported. This development meant that generalists among animals opened up new habitats, but that animals and plants that were specially adapted to their habitats lost important habitats. In addition, these monocultures produce far more climate-damaging greenhouse gases than was assumed in the 1990s.

Climate of the Philippines

The climate of the Philippines can be described as mostly tropical and in the higher regions of the mountains as subtropical. Occasionally snow falls on Mount Pulag in the cold seasons . The average annual temperature in the Philippines is given as 26.5 ° C. The effective climate classification of the Philippines is characterized as tropical climates in the system developed by Wladimir Peter Köppen . The annual amounts of precipitation are very different. The lowest rainfall falls in the region around General Santos with 965 mm and highest in the region around Infanta with 4,064 mm and in the central and eastern parts of the island of Luzon. In order to determine the regional climates, the Corona classification was introduced in 1921. This includes four different regional climate types.

Climate map of the Philippines

Type I allows a distinction to be made between a rainy and a dry season. The rainy season is set from May to November, with the heaviest rainfall falling from June to September. This includes the Ilocos region, the western part of the Mountain Province, the western part of the Central Luzon and CALABARZON region , Metro Manila , Occidental Mindoro , the southern areas of the Panay and Negros islands and the northwest of the Palawan island .

In type II climate there is no separation of dry and rainy seasons, precipitation falls throughout the year, with the main precipitation period from December to February and the lowest precipitation from March to May. This includes the regions of Cagayan Valley , the southwestern part of the CALABARZON region, the Polillo archipelago , the Bicol region , the northeast of the Samar island , the southern Leyte , parts of the Caraga region and the northeast of the Zamboanga peninsula.

In climate type III there is no separation of dry and rainy seasons, precipitation falls throughout the year, although there is no main precipitation period, but there is a low precipitation intensity from December to March or from March to May. This includes the regions of northeast Luzon, parts of the Cagayan Valley region, the Bulacan province , the eastern parts of the CALABARZON region, Oriental Mindoro , Romblon , Marinduque , the north and northeast of Panay Island, Negros Occidental , Siquijor , Zamboanga del Sur , the central and southern parts of Mindanao Island and the Sulu Archipelago .

In type IV climates, there is no separation of dry and rainy seasons, precipitation falls throughout the year, with precipitation evenly distributed over the year.

Typhoons and tropical storms occur in the Philippines all year round, whereby a clear division of the country can be seen here. The northern and eastern parts of the archipelago are regularly hit by typhoons, some of which are violent, in the months of July to September, which can reach wind speeds of over 250 km / h. The rest of the archipelago is hit by sometimes violent tropical storms over the year, some of which bring down large amounts of rain over the land masses.

Climate change

The Philippines are one of the countries that will be hardest hit by the effects of anthropogenic climate change . The archipelago is hit by an average of twenty typhoons every year . Of these, around nine cross the archipelago directly. According to the United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security, the Philippines ranked third on the risk scale for the probability of natural disasters worldwide in 2011. The country ranks tenth for the likelihood of climate change threats to biodiversity and populations, again globally, and the fifth most likely to be hit by sea level rise.

biogeography

Biogeographically, the island archipelago belongs to the Indo-Malay-Philippines biogeosphere zone, which in the Philippines is divided into the Palawan-Busuanga-Mindoro archipelago and the Luzon-Visayas-Mindanao archipelago. The Wallace Line runs south of the archipelago . The Palawan-Busuanga-Mindoro Archipelago had a land connection to Borneo and the Sunda Islands until 18,000 years ago , from which its greater fauna and flora similarity to the rest of the Malay Archipelago is derived. The Luzon-Visayas-Mindanao Archipelago has been separated from the land masses of Southeast Asia for around 160,000 years, which has resulted in an even greater biodiversity. Due to this long period of independent development, the Philippines has recently been assigned a key role for the biodiversity of the Southeast Asia region. The waters around the archipelago are divided into six biogeographical areas: the Philippines- South China Sea , North Philippine Sea , South Philippine Sea, Visayan Waters, Sulu Sea , and the Celebes Sea .

Terrestrial biosphere

flora

Nepenthes burkei on Mindoro

Rainforest on Bohol

Pine forest at Tapulao

By 2004, around 8,900 vascular plants had been described in the Philippines , of which 52% of the species are endemic to the Philippines. Of the orchid family alone (Orchidaceae) there are 944 endemic species in the Philippines. Of the wax flowers ( Hoya ) genus, 74 species of the approx. 200 known species have been discovered in the Philippines alone. More than 100 species of the genus Medinilla have been registered. There are more than 20 species of palm trees (Arecaceae or Palmae) and more than 80 species of the rattan palm family are known that are endemic. Other plant families that occur in the Philippines are the arum family (Araceae), bromeliad family (Bromeliaceae), shame flowers ( Aeschynanthus ) and various kinds of ferns such as Cyatheaceae , Heterogonium , Marattiaceae and Selaginella . Several species of the Rafflesia genus are endemic, including Rafflesia schadenbergiana . This was discovered in 1882 by the Schadenberg expedition on Mount Apo and was considered to be extinct or not findable for 112 years before individual specimens were found in 2002 on Matutum and 2007 on Kitanglad , it is an extremely threatened plant species. Numerous plant species are described anew every year in the Philippines such as Nepenthes mantalingajanensis , which was first described in 2007 on Mantalingajan . Ninety-nine plant species were on the verge of extinction in 2008, according to the Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau, 187 species are listed as critically endangered by IUCN, and 176 species are listed as endangered, including 41 tree species.

Woods

In 2003, 24% of the land area of ​​the Philippines was covered by forests, including mangrove forests and forest plantations . A distinction is made here between woodland, land used for agriculture or forestry in state ownership and forest stock in freely available private ownership. The state owned forest covered an area of ​​6.431 million hectares in 2006, the privately owned area covered 737,000 hectares . In both cases, a further distinction is made between open and closed forest areas, mangrove forests and forest plantations. The size of the closed forest area in 2006 was 2.56 million hectares, that of the open forest areas 4.03 million hectares. The tropical woods that occur most frequently in the forests come from the wing fruit family and the plant genus of the two-winged fruit trees ( Dipterocarpus ). The tropical hardwoods in the Philippines include the Ipil ( Intsia spp. ), Katmon ( Dillenia philippinensis ), White Lauan ( Shorea contorta ), Red Lauan ( Shorea negrosensis ), Bagtikan ( Parashorea malaanonan ), Amugis ( Koordersiodendron pinnatum ) , the Malugai ( Pometia pinnata ), the Durian ( Durio zibethinus ), the Dao ( Dracontomelum dao ) and the Bikal Baboi ( Schizotachyum dielsianum ).

At the end of the 1990s, the forest stocks had shrunk to 10% of the original stock. Extensive reforestation programs , logging restrictions and the nationwide ban on kaingin slowed this decline and between 2005 and 2010 a slight increase in forest stocks was observed. Biosphere corridors were set up in the 1990s to protect the forest, including the Sierra Madre , the eastern and central Mindanao Cordillera, including the province of Bukidnon , and the entire island of Palawan , so that there are large closed forest stands in these regions. In the Philippines, you can find lowland rainforests , mountain rainforests, mountain forests and two other types of Dipterocarpus forests.

Due to the high demand for palm oil , however, a rapidly increasing conversion of large forest areas into oil palm plantations is currently (as of 2014) .

Reforestation

The forest plantations, which are also subject to commercial use, the ancestral domains of the indigenous population and the so-called concept of rainforestation farming are of particular importance in reforestation. With the use of forest plantations, attempts are made to minimize logging in the original rainforest. In 2008, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) on Mindanao determined that the loss of 40,000 hectares of natural rainforest contrasted with the increase of 70,000 hectares of forest plantations. However, commercial forest plantations pose a threat to biodiversity as they consist of only a few or only one species of tree.

The ancestral domains of the indigenous population are semi-autonomous areas that are under the self-administration of the local tribes. Due to the special relationship between the indigenous peoples and the forests and mountains, the protection of the rainforests and biodiversity in the areas is to be guaranteed, such as B. showed the Talaandig Ancestral Domains in the Kalatungan and Kitanglad mountain ranges . The concept of Rainforest Farming was developed in the Philippines with international support. With this concept, mixed crops from different local tropical woods and shrub species are planted on previously deforested areas. Depending on the area, fruit trees, fiber plants, rattan or bamboo are mixed in. Rainforest farming not only has positive effects on the preservation of biodiversity, but also positive socio-economic effects for the population. The concept of ancestral domains also has positive effects on the preservation of the socio-cultural identity of the indigenous population.

Mangroves

Mangrove forests at Kamanpay Public Beach Cordova

The population of mangroves is very high in the Philippines, 40 species from 14 genera of the 54 species known worldwide are found in the Philippines. Mangroves are an important nursery for fish, mussels and other organisms. It is estimated that every hectare of mangrove forest produces approx. 3,600 kg of forest litter per year, this litter largely determines the formation of a humus layer and thus also the nutrient cycle. The forest litter that falls from the trees on one hectare provides food for around 1,000 kg of marine organisms. Mangroves also offer other important functions such as preventing soil erosion and a dense mangrove forest helps protect the coast from erosion. The species Bakuan , Piapi ( Avicennia marina ), Pototanc ( Bruguiera sexangula ), Tabici ( Xylocarpus granatum ) and Langarai ( Bruguiera parviflora ) occur, among others . Mangrove forests covered an area of ​​450,000 hectares in 1918, by 1995 the population had decreased to 120,000 hectares. Extensive protective measures and private and state-sponsored programs enabled the area to be expanded to 210,497 hectares in 2008. The largest populations of mangroves can be found on Mindanao (112,745 ha), followed by Samar (65,119 ha), Palawan (37,432 ha) and Luzon (16,769 ha).

The greatest threats to the mangrove forests come from agriculture, the creation of aquacultures and ponds for salt production, housing developments and the use of plants for economic purposes.

Mammals

The Tamarau

The Prince Alfred Hirsch

About 281 endemic species of terrestrial mammals from the Indo-Malay archipelago live on the Philippine archipelago. The largest mammal in the Philippines is the tamarau ( Bubalus mindorensis ) on Mindoro Island . Other larger mammals are the Philippine deer ( Rusa marianna , Syn. Cervus mariannus ), the Visayan spotted deer ( Rusa alfredi or Cervus alfredi ), the mouse deer Tragulus nigricans , the Bengal cat ( Prionailurus bengalensis ssp. Rabori ), the Palawan Bearded Pig ( Sus ahoenobarbus ), the Philippines Koboldmaki ( Carlito syrichta ), the Malay civet ( Viverra tangalunga ), the porcupine Hystrix pumila , the cynomolgus monkey ( Macaca fascicularis ssp. philippensis ), the Philippines glider ( cynocephalus Volans ), the Philippines dwarf croissant ( Exilisciurus concinnus ), the binturong ( Arctictis binturong ), the giant bark rat Phloeomys pallidus , the pygmy otter ( Aonyx cinerea ), the Mindanao pointed squirrel ( Urogale everetti ). There are also various species of bats such as the golden crowned fruit bat ( Acerodon jubatus ), Rhinolophus rufus and Eonycteris robusta . On some islands of the southern Philippines, including the Tawi-Tawi Islands comes Plumploriart Bornean slow loris ago. Many of the mammal species are threatened by habitat destruction. Through a breeding program, the population of the Tamarau could be increased from 154 animals in 2000 to 314 animals in 2010.

The greatest threats to the mammalian fauna are deforestation and habitat fragmentation and downsizing. According to the Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau , the PAWB, seven mammal species were close to extinction in 2008, five species were classified as critically endangered by IUCN and 17 species as classified endangered.

Herpetofauna

The herpetofauna has so far been little researched, so that new species are constantly being discovered; in 2009 the Platymantis insulatus , on the Gigantes Islands , and in 2010 the Varanus bitatawa in the Sierra Madre were first described. It reaches a length of two meters and is a vegetarian . In the Sierra Madre , the longest mountain range in the Philippines, scientists counted more than 100 reptile and amphibian species, in Luzon they identified 49 amphibian species, 32 of which are endemic , and 106 reptile species of which 36 are endemic.

Many reptiles and amphibians in the Philippines are classified as endangered or endangered species by the IUCN . The greatest dangers for the herpetofauna are deforestation, the fragmentation and reduction of habitat, water pollution and the use of pesticides in agriculture, and for many species of monitor lizards also hunting. Another danger for the frog auger is the fungal infestation observed around the world, which scientists assume that the Filipino species could be severely affected. No information is available on population sizes. According to the Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau, four reptile species were on the verge of extinction in 2008, six species are listed as critically endangered by the IUCN, and four species are classified as endangered. Of the amphibians, six species were critically endangered and ten species were classified as endangered.

Reptiles

Up to 2010, around 237 species of reptiles were described in the Philippines; they live in almost all ecosystems. These include 2 types of crocodiles and 114 types of snakes , 20 of which are described as poisonous snakes. The largest reptile is the estuarine crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ), followed by the Philippines crocodile ( Crocodylus mindorensis ). A 6.17 meter long specimen of the estuarine crocodile was caught in Agusan Marsh in 2011 . Other scaled reptiles include the reticulated python ( Malayopyhthon reticulatus ), the banded monitor ( Varanus salvator ), the Panay monitor ( Varanus mabitang ) and Gray monitor ( Varanus olivaceus ), approx. 10 types of kites ( Draco ), as well as numerous types of geckos ( Gekkonidae), lizards (Lacertidae) and skinks (Scincidae).

Amphibians

Over 90 species of amphibians have been described so far. Frogs (Anura) live in almost all ecosystems in the Philippines. The Rana tipanan , Platymantis sierramadrensis and the Sphenomorphus tagapayo live in the central region of the Sierra Madre . An interesting specimen is the Rhacophorus pardalis belonging to the genus of the real rowing frogs , also called flying frogs , it lives in the flat rainforests of Palawan. The Barbour frog Barbourula busuangensis belongs to the primeval "lower" frogs (Archaeobatrachia) and lives on the Calamian Islands . 26 endemic species of the genus Platymantis , including Platymantis taylori , are known. In general, however, relatively little is known about the Filipino amphibians.

Avifauna

Taririk Hornbill on Panay

The Apolori

Of the avifauna , 535 species of bird species had been described by 2010 . Of these, 185 are endemic species and 60 species are classified as threatened species. Birdlife International has identified a total of seven regions with endemic bird populations. These are the islands of Luzon, Mindanao and the Eastern Visayas , the Western and Central Visayas , Mindoro , Palawan and the Sulu Archipelago . Each of these regions has a high percentage of endemic bird species. Numerous new species are also being discovered here, for example the Calayan's rail ( Gallirallus calayanensis ) on the Babuyan Islands in 2004.

The largest bird species in the Philippines is the Philippine eagle ( Pithecophaga jefferyi ), other large birds of prey are the striped owl ( Bubo philippensis ) and the red-eared owl ( Mimizuku gurneyi ). In addition, numerous species of fruit pigeon and numerous representatives of the hornbill genus Aceros , the real woodpeckers (Picinae), bulbüls (Pycnonotidae), mistletoe-eaters (Dicaeidae), parrots , including real cockatoos ( Cacatua ), and many others live on the islands .

The Philippines is an important staging and wintering quarters for migratory birds from China , Siberia and Japan , so that larger populations of rare species of birds, such as egrets , the wetlands can observe mangrove forests and river deltas.

The main threats to the individual species of avifauna are habitat destruction or fragmentation, rainforest clearing, conversion of wetlands into agricultural land, environmental pollution, the use of pesticides and genetic impoverishment in agriculture and, for many species, through hunting.

Entomofauna

The entomofauna is the largest group of animals in the Philippines. It includes more than 21,000 described species. Insects are some of the toughest animal species on earth, and they are found in every ecosystem. There are about 915 species of butterflies ( Lepidoptera ) on the island archipelago , of which about a third are endemic. Over 110 of the 130 species of tiger beetle (Cicindelinae) are also endemic.

Inland waters

Primeval forest on the Loboc River, Bohol

Lake Danao on Leyte

The Philippines has 421 main river systems, 211 inland lakes and 22 larger wetlands, including river marshes and swamps. These are home to 348 species of freshwater fish , 120 of which are endemic and 76 are endangered species. The endemic fish species include the Sardinella tawilis , in the Taalsee , and the Mystichthys luzonensis in the Buhi-See . Marshes and wetlands form an important habitat for the endangered Philippines crocodile ( Crocodylus mindorensis ).

The main threats to water are water pollution from settlement (33%), industry (27%), agriculture and fish farms (29%). These favor algal blooms and the decrease in the oxygen content in the waters. Other threats to biodiversity come from climate change and the introduction of invasive species.

Rivers

The largest river systems form on the:

Luzon archipelago : Abra , Abulug , Agno , Amburayan , Bicol , Cagayan , Laoag , Pampanga , Pasig

Visayas archipelago : Catubig , Ilog , Jalaur , Panay

Mindanao archipelago : Agus , Agusan , Buayan , Cagayan Mindanao , Davao , Rio Grande de Mindanao , Tagoloan

Wetlands

The most important wetlands are the: Agusan Marsh , Candaba Swamp , Ligawasan and the Kalibo Wetlands

Inland lakes

The main inland lakes are: Laguna de Bay , Lanao Lake , Mainit Lake , Taal Lake , Buluan Lake , Baao Lake , Bato Lake , Danao Lake Leyte , Danao Lake Cebu , Sebu Lake

Marine biosphere

Haarstern in Apo Reef Marine Natural Park

Soft coral in the Apo Reef

Blue spotted rays off Leyte Island

In the seas in and around the archipelago live 3,030 species of fish , of which 121 are endemic and 76 are endangered species, making the waters of the Philippines the most biodiverse marine biotope worldwide, in which 164 species of cartilaginous fish , over 2,000 species of marine molluscs , more than 10,000 species of invertebrate marine animals , 25 species of marine mammals , plus the Dugong , five species of sea turtles and 17 species of sea snakes live.

Sea grasses

Seagrass meadows are one of the world's most important marine ecosystems. In the waters of the Philippines there are 19 species of seaweed , which is 55% of the seaweed species found in Southeast Asia, around 40 species from 11 genera are known worldwide. Sea grasses are monocots ( monocots ) and no grasses in botanic-systematic sense. Seagrass meadows lead to the consolidation and stabilization of sediment substrates, i.e. This means that they consolidate sediment soils (sand, silt, gravel) and stabilize the downstream coastline. They form sediment traps, which, depending on the flow conditions, hold the fine sediments that are thrown up in the sea with important nutrients in the seagrass beds, as these would otherwise be carried away by the current. They lead to an enormous increase in the settlement area and an increase in the spatial structure in the coastal waters. Seagrass meadows are also an important factor in the production of oxygen in the world's oceans. Since the tropical seas are relatively poor in nutrients, they are considered to be one of the primary producers in the formation of biomass. Due to their diverse sizes, they form a diverse habitat and are also considered one of the nurseries of fish, which are of particular importance for human nutrition.

Seagrass meadows covered an area of ​​27,282 km² in the waters of the Philippines in 2008. In the last 60 years the seagrass meadows have lost 30–40% of their original size. The reasons for this are varied, but the greatest threats to the seagrass meadows are the pollution of the rivers, construction work on land such as port facilities, shipping, soil erosion on land, driftnet fishing and, to an increasing extent, the overfertilization of agricultural areas and their washout the sea also favor the algal blooms.

Coral reefs

Coral reefs cover an area of ​​2.7 million hectares, which corresponds to the area of ​​9.5% of the world's known tropical coral reefs, and they are among the most species-rich marine biotopes in the Philippines. Also known as the rainforests of the seas, they are among the most productive ecosystems on earth. The largest coral reef is the Caubyan / Calituban double reef in the Visayas. A total of 488 species of hard corals and 1,727 species of reef fish have been counted in the coral reefs . Coral reefs form a natural coastal protection and many smaller reefs protect hundreds of kilometers on the tropical island coast of the Philippines from typhoons and can also slow down the effects of tsunamis on the coast. Coral reefs are of outstanding importance for the biodiversity of the seas, they are considered to be the nursery of fish living in the open sea. The Philippines is again and again by the world observed by the El Nino effect caused coral bleaching affected, the last was held in 2010. The condition of the coral reefs in the Philippines is rated 4 - 5% as very good, 20% as good, 35% as satisfactory and 40% as unsatisfactory.

The greatest threats to coral reefs are dynamite , cyanide , driftnet fishing , climate change, pollution of the oceans, soil erosion on land, uncontrolled tourism and a higher acidity in the world's oceans . Coral reefs are legally protected in the Philippines, The reefs close to the coast are integrated into the concept of marine protected areas . By 2008, over 985 of these protected areas were established by the local authorities in cooperation with DENR-PAWB. However, monitoring of the entire Philippine waters can only be inadequately guaranteed due to their extent and the limited financial resources of the state.

Sea turtles

Sea turtles are a key indicator of the biodiversity of the world's oceans. The hawksbill sea turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata ), the loggerhead turtle ( Caretta caretta ), the green turtle ( Chelonia mydas ), the olive ridged turtle ( Lepidochelys olivacea ) and the coriac leatherback turtle ( Dermochelys ) can be found in the Philippine waters . The main nesting areas of the olive ridged turtle are in Morong and Bagac in the province of Bataan and in San Antonio , province of Zambales . The main nesting areas of the remaining four species are concentrated in the Turtle Islands and around the Gulf of Davao region . Nesting clutches of green turtles found on the Turtle Islands in 2011 were reported to be 14,220, over 1.44 million eggs. In 2004, the lowest number of nest sites was found so far, a little over 4,000. All sea turtles are under species protection.

The main threats to sea turtles come from fishing and ocean pollution. From 2000 to 2008, over 1,000 foreign fishermen were detained for catching sea turtles.

Cartilaginous fish

Of the 164 species of cartilaginous fish that occur in the waters of the Philippines, the whale shark ( Rhincodon typus ) is the largest representative and is protected by law together with the giant manta ray ( Manta birostris ). A population of 50 to 100 animals is assumed for the whale shark. Another rare representative of the sharks is the scientifically little researched basking mouth shark ( Megachasma pelagios ), of which five specimens have been sighted since its discovery. Sharks and rays are not legally protected in the Philippines, but their protection has been embedded in the National Plan of Action (NPOA), which came into force in 2009 and includes awareness-raising campaigns about the importance of sharks in the marine ecosystem to counter the myths of the film industry.

The main threats to cartilaginous fish are pollution and overfishing of the seas by means of longlines and driftnets.

Marine mammals

Of the 25 species of marine mammals, the sperm whale ( Physeter macrocephalus ) and the humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) are the largest representatives. The waters around the Babuyan Islands are visited by the humpback whales every year to give birth to their young. Over 100 specimens have been identified since 2000. Of the smaller members of the marine mammals include the small sperm whale ( Kogia simus ), the East Pacific dolphin ( Stenella longirostris ) and the Melon-headed Whale ( Peponocephala electra ) belong to the rare marine mammals of the Irrawaddy dolphin ( Orcaella brevirostris ) in Malampaya Sound and the Dugong ( Dugong dugon ).

The main threats to marine mammals, which differ depending on the species, come from climate change, pollution and overfishing of the seas by means of longlines and driftnets. For the larger species, the threats come from whaling in international waters, for smaller sperm whales also in deep-sea fishing and for humpback whales in the acidification of the world's oceans , since a higher acid content of the oceans has a negative effect on the development of animal plankton .

environmental Protection

The ipil tree

Balete tree in the Sierra Madre

The environment in the Philippines was to the 1980s neglected. The governments then saw their main task in ensuring rapid economic growth. This changed when economic growth, the expansion of agricultural cultivation areas and the country's sustained high population growth resulted in overexploitation and waste of important natural resources . The state of the Philippine environment had deteriorated so much that the government responded with stringent environmental laws . Of these, Republic Law 7586 , also known as the National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS), is the most demanding in terms of enforcement. A total of around 35,000 km² of the area of ​​the Philippines has been designated as nature reserve in accordance with the guidelines of the NIPAS law. Of these, around 21,300 km² are terrestrial and around 13,700 km² are marine protection zones . The protection zones include the following classifications: Strict nature reserve ( National Park ), Natural park, Natural monument, Wildlife sanctuary , Protected landscapes and seascapes , Resource reserve, Natural biotic areas . Further protection zones are the protected areas , buffer zones and the indigenous cultural community areas . The environmental laws of the Philippines are intended to protect the rainforest as well as the sea with its coral reefs , the stocks of fish and endemic animal species, as well as the areas of the local population necessary for self-sufficiency. In recent years, due to population pressure, the classification of 37 national parks has been converted into Protected Landscapes and Natural Parks , so that there are often a large number of names for nature reserves in the literature. The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) was adopted in 1997 to preserve biodiversity . Other laws are the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997, the Philippine National Seagrass Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (NSCS), Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act of 2001.

The air in cities should also become cleaner through the expansion of local public transport. To this end, two local governments in Iloilo City and Cagayan de Oro were involved in a pilot project. Work plans had been drawn up for both local governments by 2010, and implementation began in the second half of 2010.

The treatment of wastewater is also to be promoted, and a prize is awarded every year for the cleanest river in the Philippines.

Ecotourism

The promotion of environmentally friendly tourism began in the early 1990s. To this end, the National Ecotourism Congress was held in Bohol in 1992 and a strategy was worked out to promote not only the natural attractions but also the cultural heritage of the Philippines. With this initiative it was also tried to let the local population participate in the income from tourism in order to better convey the need for environmental protection. In 2002 the National Ecotourism Strategy was adopted to better market ecotourism and achieve greater sustainability. For this purpose, places for ecotourism are designated in the Philippines, these include, in addition to nature reserves and national parks, the list of national cultural heritage and places that exude a special visual charm.

Since then ecotourism has become an increasingly important branch of tourism in the Philippines, so in December 2008 alone 15 protected areas were able to exceed a million ph. Peso (about 20,000 euros) in entrance fees, these were among others Ninoy Aquino Park and Wildlife Center in Metro Manila , the Apo Island Protected Landscape and Seascape in Negros Oriental and the Hinulugang Taktak National Park , province of Rizal . The Gilutongan Marine Sanctuary , which was established by the Cordova municipality in the Olango archipelago , was able to reach more than three million ph. Earning peso in 2008.

Waste disposal

When it comes to waste disposal , the Philippines are still faced with enormous problems, as the majority of the population and local authorities cannot afford regular waste disposal. In 2000 the Republic Act (RA) No. 9003 , also known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 , passed. This law obliges all Filipino cities and communities to set up ecological waste management. The law aims to counteract the degradation of the environment and pollution from landfill, and ensure that more waste is treated or recycled to limit the loss of resources. However, the practical implementation of the law at national, regional and local level has so far not been successful (status 2010). Since the municipal authorities mostly lack legal, financial, organizational, institutional and technical requirements, only three percent of the municipalities have been able to implement the law so far. In order to develop the technical and organizational requirements, the Solid Waste Management Association for Local Government Units was founded with the support of the Society for International Cooperation (GIZ) . The association works mainly in the Western Visayas , Eastern Visayas , Central Visayas and Caraga regions . So far, 12 municipal administrations have been involved in the project, seven of which have already been able to set up regulated waste disposal. As a result, the waste can now be collected, separated, recycled and stored in an environmentally friendly manner or composted so that landfills can be closed. Three new waste treatment plants have been built, which are considered to be the most modern of their kind in the Visayas Islands. Various pilot projects have started in Iloilo City to reduce the amount of waste generated. The city was the first municipality to start separating plastic waste. Non-recyclable materials are now used as an energy source by the cement industry. In addition, an association of waste collectors in the city was founded, which also takes care of issues of occupational safety and the reduction of work-related health loads. An expanded project has been taking place in Metro Manila since 2012 with the support of the Japan Social Development Fund (JSDF). In addition to better waste disposal, this project also aims to improve the living conditions of garbage collectors and recyclers.

Greenhouse gases

The Philippines are one of the smaller emitters of climate-damaging greenhouse gases. Without the coal and steel industries, such as agro-forestry and forestry, the emissions amounted to approx. 142 million tons in 2005. The output of the generated carbon dioxide emissions peaked in the years 1997 to 2005 and has decreased significantly since then, despite the economic growth of an average of 4%. In 2007 it was at a level equivalent to that of the early 1980s. Despite all the problems, the Philippines is one of the few countries in the world that has been able to significantly reduce its carbon dioxide emissions.

National parks and protected areas of the Philippines

Luzon archipelago :

Mindoro Island & Palawan :

Visayas archipelago :

Mindanao archipelago :

Islands and archipelagos of the Philippines

See also

• Geography of the philippines
• History of the Philippines
• Culture of the Philippines

swell

• Biodiversity Report 2006 of the DENR available Website of the PAWB (Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau)
• DENR biodiversity report 2010 available on the PAWB website

Individual evidence

1. ↑ THE THIRD PHILIPPINE NATIONAL REPORT  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
2. ↑ THE THIRD PHILIPPINE NATIONAL REPORT TO THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (PDF; 1.5 MB)
3. ↑ Wolfgang Kramer: Research approaches to consider biodiversity in climate protection. (PDF; 1.9 MB) p. 13.
4. ↑ UNU-IAS Policy Report Climate and Human-Related Drivers of Biodiversity Decline in Southeast Asia ( Memento of the original dated December 22, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 810 kB) United Nations University Yokohama 
5. ↑ Climatology and Agrometeorology ( Memento of the original from May 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
6. ↑ CropsReview.Com
7. ↑ PAGASA website ( Memento of the original dated August 30, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
8. ↑ Climatology and Agrometeorology ( Memento of the original from May 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
9. ↑ Visayan Silent Garden
10. ^ Information from the Philippine government on the risk of environmental disasters
11. ↑ WorldRiskReport 2011 United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security ( Memento of the original of July 8, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
12. ↑ Kent E. Carpenter, Victor G. Springer: The center of the center of marine shore fish biodiversity: the Philippine Islands ( Memento of the original of March 16, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 405 kB) In: Environmental Biology of Fishes . No. 72, 2005, p. 468. 
13. ↑ Hendrik Freitag Uni Halle Dissertation: Macroinvertebrate communities in rivers of the St. Paul National Park, Palawan, Philippines (PDF; 1.1 MB)
14. ↑ GERHARD LANGENBERGER, KONRAD MARTIN and JOACHIM SAUERBORN: Vascular plant species inventory of a Philippine lowland rain forest and its conservation value (PDF; 399 kB) Biodiversity and Conservation (2006) 15: 1271–1301, doi : 10.1007 / s10531-005- 2576-4 Springer 2006
15. ^ Orchid species - Philippines
16. ^ Medinilla species - Philippines
17. ^ Palms species - Philippines
18. ↑ Exotic Plants
19. ^ Rafflesia schadenbergiana Göppert
20. ↑ Tourism of the Municipality of Baungon ( Memento of the original from October 12, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
21. ↑ Mt. Mantalinganhan Protected Landscape on the Philippine Clearinghouse website
22. ↑ Selection of tree species and a nature reserve on the Philippine Clearinghouse website
23. ↑ In the Philippines, eight million hectares of land are to be converted into palm oil plantations. Rettet den Regenwald eV, accessed on May 12, 2015
24. ↑ Rainforestation Farming: Model project for sustainable rural development and biodiversity rehabilitation in South East Asia (PDF; 64 kB)
25. ↑ Tebtebba Foundation Indigenous People's International Center for Policy Research and Education: Philippine Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: Review of Policy and Implementation (PDF; 899 kB)
26. ↑ STATE OF MANGROVE FORESTS IN THE PHILIPPINES  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 199 kB) European Joint Master in Water and Coastal Management Universidade do Algarve 2005-2006  
27. ↑ PHILIPPINES MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM & BIODIVERSITY ( Memento of the original from June 15, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
28. ↑ PHILIPPINE MAMMALS Compiled by: Crizalde A. Umali
29. ^ Rachel A. Munds, KAI Nekaris & Susan M. Ford: Taxonomy of the Bornean Slow Loris, With New Species Nycticebus kayan (Primates, Lorisidae). American Journal of Primatology 75: 46-56 (2013) doi : 10.1002 / ajp.22071 , PDF
30. ↑ Tamaraw Conservation Program (TCP)  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
31. ↑ Rafe Brown, Cameron Siler, Carl Oliveros, Luke Welton, Ashley Rock, John Swab, Merlijn Van Weerd, Jonah van Beijnen, Dominic Rodriguez, Edmund Jose, Arvin Diesmos. The amphibians and reptiles of Luzon Island, Philippines, VIII: the herpetofauna of Cagayan and Isabela Provinces, northern Sierra Madre Mountain Range. ZooKeys , 2013; 266 (0): 1 DOI: 10.3897 / zookeys.266.3982
32. ↑ Amphibian dying : frogs in Asia react differently Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg - MMCD NEW MEDIA, Düsseldorf Scienexx, 19 August 2011
33. ^ The Reptiles of the Philippines
34. ↑ PAWB: “Lolong” holds world record as largest croc in the world ( Memento of the original from January 26th, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
35. ↑ The Catanduanes Nature Reserve on Bird Life
36. ↑ ^{a b} Unique biodiversity on Conversation International
37. ↑ AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF LUZON ISLAND, II: PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE HERPETOFAUNA OF AURORA MEMORIAL NATIONAL PARK, PHILIPPINES (PDF; 1.1 MB) Hamadryad Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 175-195, 2000
38. ↑ Overview of the Endemic Birdareas of the Philippines (PDF; 1.6 MB) Publication Birdlife International
39. ↑ DIVERSITY & ENDEMISM Philippines on Conversation International
40. ^ Fishbase: List of Freshwater Fishes for Philippines
41. ^ Fishbase: List of Endemic Fishes for Philippines
42. ^ Fishbase : List of Marine Fishes for Philippines
43. ↑ ^{a b} PhilippiseS Environment Monitor 2005 Worldbank Paper (PDF; 5.8 MB)
44. ↑ Seegraswiesen facts and figures
45. ↑ Marine Biodiversity Diversity of Life MPI Bremen ( Memento of the original from November 25, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 7.7 MB)  
46. ↑ Coral reefs - centers of biodiversity and evolution  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Heilbronn Natural History Museum  
47. ↑ REBECCA WEEKS, GARRY R. RUSS, ANGEL C. ALCALA, AND ALAN T. WHITE Effectiveness of Marine Protected Areas in the Philippines for Biodiversity Conservation (PDF; 359 kB)
48. ↑ Philippines: Sea Turtle Baby Boom on Turtle Islands Breaks 28-year Record
49. ↑ Rare Mega Mouth Shark Netted in the Philippines; Only 35th Recorded Specimen in the World
50. ↑ Overview National Action Plan (NPOA) (English) ( Memento of the original from April 11, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
51. ↑ Giant sperm whale saved by Philippine fishermen
52. ^ An hour with the dolphins at Tañon Strait from Asuncion Sia
53. ↑ The Malampaya Sound Protected Landscape / Seascape on the website of the Palawan Concil for Sustainable Development
54. ↑ The Republic Law 7586 National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS) ( Memento of the original dated December 2, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 149 kB)  
55. ↑ Protection zones under the NIPAS law
56. ↑ NIPAS Act 7586 p. 3 ( Memento of the original dated December 2, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 149 kB)  
57. ↑ Clean Air for smaller Cities in the AESAN Region ( Memento of the original from July 2, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
58. ↑ Ecotourism in the Philippines ( Memento of the original dated December 31, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 241 kB)  
59. ↑ Richard Philip A. Gonzalo Exploring Social Enterprises as partners for Ecotourism Development in the Philippines  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as broken. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. University of the Philippines  
60. ↑ The website of the Solid Waste Management Association for Local Government Units ( Memento of the original from October 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
61. ↑ Waste management by local government in the Philippines  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Society for International Cooperation (GIZ)  
62. ↑ 6000 informal garbage workers to benefit from Japanese grant
63. ↑ A Strategic Approach to Climate Change in the Philippines: Worldbank Papers (PDF; 1.2 MB)