Bioethanol

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Bioethanol
Structure of ethanol
other names

Ethanol, ethanol, ethyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, alcohol, agricultural alcohol, agro-ethanol, alcohol, potato spirit, alcohol, E100

Brief description Fuel for adapted Otto engines or for adding gasoline
origin

biosynthetic (bioethanol) or biogenic (agricultural alcohol etc.)

Characteristic components

Ethanol (containing water)

CAS number

64-17-5

properties
Physical state liquid
density

0.789 g cm −3 (20 ° C)

calorific value

26.75 MJ / kg

Octane number

104 RON

Melting range −114 ° C
Boiling range

78 ° C

Flash point

12.0 ° C ( closed cup )

Ignition temperature 400 ° C
Explosive limit 3.1-27.7% by volume
Temperature class T2
safety instructions
GHS labeling of hazardous substances
02 - Highly / extremely flammable 07 - Warning

danger

H and P phrases H: 225-319
P: 210-240-305 + 351 + 338-403 + 233
As far as possible and customary, SI units are used. Unless otherwise noted, the data given apply to standard conditions .

As bioethanol (also agro-ethanol) refers to ethanol , consisting exclusively of biomass or biodegradable units was prepared from wastes and for use as a biofuel is determined. If the ethanol is made from vegetable waste, wood, straw or whole plants, it is also known as cellulosic ethanol . Ethanol can be used as a fuel admixture in mineral oil derivatives for gasoline engines ( ethanol fuel ), as pure ethanol (E100) or together with other alcohols (e.g. methanol ) as biofuel.

After the oil shock of the 1970s, biofuels had been rediscovered as an alternative to fossil fuels . The purer combustion and the renewable raw material made bioethanol an environmentally friendly product for the time being, which also helped to utilize the agricultural surpluses from the EU and USA. Since renewable energy sources were promoted politically on a large scale in connection with the Kyoto Protocol as a means of curbing CO 2 emissions, bioethanol has come under increasing criticism. The controversial discussion of the ecological and economic aspects of bioethanol production led to the regulation of production conditions in the EU.

commitment

Ethanol fuels are used as an energy source in internal combustion engines and fuel cells. In particular, use as a gasoline substitute or additive in motor vehicles and, more recently, aircraft engines has gained in importance in recent years.

The gasoline-alcohol mixture is in the United States as gasohol and in Brazil as Gasolina Tipo C respectively. In the United States, E10 and E85 blends containing 10% and 85% ethanol, respectively, are common. In Brazil, in addition to pure ethanol, only petrol with an ethanol content of 20 to 25% is offered at all petrol stations. The government occasionally changes this share according to the market situation (harvest time) to regulate prices.

In addition to the usual use of ethanol as a gasoline additive, there are also initial applications of ethanol in diesel fuel in the form of emulsion fuels. The petrol additive ETBE is also produced from bioethanol .

Mixtures of ethanol fuel

Ethanol-fuel mixture E85
other names

Ethanol fuel E85, E85, ethanol-gasoline mixture

Brief description Gasoline with a high biogenic content for adapted engines
origin

mainly biosynthetic, partly fossil

Characteristic components

Ethanol (approx. 85%), premium gasoline (approx. 15%)

properties
Physical state liquid
density

0.785 kg / L (15 ° C)

calorific value

6.3 kWh / L (22.68 MJ / L) = 8.0 kWh / kg (28.8 MJ / kg)

Calorific value

25.4 MJ / L (7.1 kWh / L) = 32.3 MJ / kg (9 kWh / kg)

Octane number

approx. 102 RON

Boiling range

55-180 ° C

Flash point

−56 ° C

Ignition temperature 385 ° C
Explosive limit 2.2-25.5% by volume
Temperature class T3
Explosion class AII
safety instructions
GHS labeling of hazardous substances
02 - Highly / extremely flammable 07 - Warning 08 - Dangerous to health

danger

H and P phrases H: 224-315-319-340-350-304-412
P: 210-241-301 + 310-303 + 361 + 353-405-501
UN number 1993
Hazard number 33
As far as possible and customary, SI units are used. Unless otherwise noted, the data given apply to standard conditions .

Common mixtures are designated E2 , E5 , E10 , E15 , E25 , E50 , E85 and E100 . The number added to the "E" indicates how much volume percent ethanol has been added to the gasoline. E85 consists of 85% anhydrous bioethanol and 15% conventional gasoline. Due to the higher knock resistance , the engine output with E85 can be significantly increased compared to conventional petrol. In the summer of 2002 the Federal Ministry of Finance passed a law on tax exemption and the like. a. of ethanol as a biofuel to be added to fossil fuels (authorized by EC Directive 92/81 / EEC Art. 8, Para. 4).

According to the European standard EN 228 , an admixture of bioethanol to conventional gasoline of up to 5% is permitted (E5). Normal gasoline engines can be operated with E5 without modification. Since January 1, 2011, E10 , i.e. gasoline with an admixture of up to 10% bioethanol, has been introduced at German filling stations in addition to E5. E10 can only tolerate vehicles that are designed for it. E10 is compatible with these vehicles without any restrictions. Around 90 percent of all gasoline-powered cars in Germany can fill up with E10, for the remaining 10% E5 will continue to be offered indefinitely, with the exception of very small filling stations. New vehicles are usually E10-compatible. The E10 compatibility of a vehicle can be requested from the vehicle manufacturer. Until March 2011, acceptance in Germany was low. This didn't change until 2018.

The majority of the United States uses E10. Many vehicles with gasoline engines and fully regulated fuel systems can also handle E25. The generously dimensioned injection quantity correction control via lambda probe is used here. In Brazil, 25% ethanol is mixed with regular gasoline. More than 80% of all cars sold there can also drive with the E100 or any combination of both types. Engines that can only be operated with pure alcohol have been sold there in the automotive industry since 1979 and for small aircraft since 2005; The flexible fuel vehicles available since of 2003.

On December 2, 2005, the first public German bioethanol filling station for E85 opened in Bad Homburg . Conventional petrol vehicles have up to 30 percent more consumption when using E85. This is mainly due to the fact that E85 has a lower calorific value than Eurosuper: One liter of E85 has a calorific value of around 22.7 MJ / L (premium petrol around 32.5 MJ / L), which results in a theoretical additional consumption of around 43% . In practice, the additional consumption can be significantly lower, depending on the engine and driving profile. A petrol engine that has not been specially modified does not achieve any increase in efficiency through the use of ethanol. Increased performance or a reduction in additional consumption through higher compression is made possible by the higher knock resistance of the ethanol. E85 was available at around 270 German petrol stations in early 2010, but was withdrawn from the range on January 1, 2016.

Modification of internal combustion engines

The higher the proportion of ethanol in a gasoline-ethanol mixture, the less suitable it is for unmodified gasoline-powered engines. Pure ethanol reacts with or dissolves rubber and plastics (e.g. PVC ) and must therefore not be used in unchanged vehicles. In addition, pure ethanol has a higher octane number than regular gasoline , which enables the ignition timing to be changed. Because of the lower calorific value , the throughput of the injection nozzles must be adjusted. Pure ethanol engines also require a cold start system to ensure complete evaporation of the fuel in the cold running phase at temperatures below 13 ° C. With 10 to 30% ethanol in gasoline, hardly any conversion work is usually necessary. Not all major car manufacturers guarantee that the engine will function properly up to a proportion of 10% ethanol because, for example, uncoated aluminum components can be attacked. Since 1999, an increasing number of vehicles in the world have been equipped with engines that can run on any possible mixture of gasoline and ethanol from 0% ethanol to 100% ethanol without modification. These motors are now used by almost all manufacturers.

Ethanol and FFV vehicles in Brazil

In Europe, Sweden is a pioneer in the admixture of ethanol. Ford has already sold 50,000 Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFV) in Sweden (as of April 2019). Over two million FFV were produced in Brazil in 2017. These vehicles are specially designed for operation with the E85, which is available nationwide in Brazil. When operated with the E85, the FFV consume around 35% more fuel by volume than the standard petrol model with performance increases of up to around 20% (manufacturer information). FFV can be operated with any ethanol-gasoline mixture from 0 to 85% ethanol. Due to the (combustion) properties of ethanol that differ from gasoline, these engines are manufactured with different materials. FFV vehicles are no longer offered in Germany. A special sensor continuously determines the mixing ratio during operation and regulates the combustion process.

Four typical Brazilian full-flex-fuel models from different manufacturers, colloquially known as Flex-Auto. These vehicles run in any mixture with ethanol and gasoline.

In Brazil, almost all manufacturers offer ethanol-compatible vehicles. At Volkswagen they have the addition Totalflex or at Chevrolet (Opel / GM) Flexpower and some of them have very economical engines (1.0 City Totalflex or 1.0 VHC Flexpower).

ETBE additive

(Bio) ethanol is the raw material for the production of the gasoline additive ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE). The petrol additive ETBE increases u. a. the octane number and the knock resistance of gasoline. It is added to gasoline by German mineral oil companies up to a proportion of 15%.

In 2005, the German automobile developer and manufacturer AtTrack made trials for the first time with a pilot injection that specifically adds bioethanol at points in the driving profile where increased knock resistance is required. The aim was to get by with less bioethanol than when used as an additive while having the same positive effect on the engine and combustion. In 2006 AtTrack used a Subaru WRX STI for the first time in the 24-hour race on the Nürburgring with a bioethanol fuel mixture.

Fuel cells

Fuel cell operated with alcohol

Hydrogen is also seen as an alternative fuel for internal combustion engines and fuel cells. However, hydrogen is difficult to transport and store. One possible solution is to use ethanol for transport, then catalytically separate it into hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and transfer the hydrogen to a fuel cell . Alternatively, some fuel cells can be operated directly with ethanol or methanol .

In early 2004, researchers from the University of Minnesota showed a simple ethanol reactor that converts ethanol into hydrogen with the help of catalysts . The device uses a rhodium - cerium catalyst for the first reaction, which takes place at a temperature of around 700 ° C. In this reaction, ethanol, water vapor and oxygen are mixed and large amounts of hydrogen are produced. However, this also produces toxic carbon monoxide , which is a nuisance for most fuel cells and has to be oxidized to carbon dioxide by another catalyst .

history

In 1860, Nikolaus August Otto used ethyl alcohol (ethanol) as fuel in the prototype of his internal combustion engine. The automobile manufacturer Henry Ford designed his T-model , built from 1908 , with which he revolutionized the series production of cars, on the basis that agricultural alcohol (bioethanol) was the actual fuel for this “people's car”. Ford believed that ethanol was the fuel of the future, which at the same time would bring new growth impulses to agriculture: “ The fuel of the future is going to come from fruit like that sumach out by the road, or from apples, weeds, sawdust - almost anything . "

Due to the supply situation with gasoline, there was in Germany with the Reichskraftsprit (RKS) founded in 1925, a manufacturer of alcohol ( potato schnapps ) for use as gasoline . However, the use served less as a means to increase the knock resistance , but rather to support the growing agriculture. The RKS sold its gasoline mixture with an approximately 25 percent share of alcohol under the brand name Monopolin . 1930 came into force in Germany the purchase regulation for alcohol for fuel purposes for all fuel companies. 2.5 percent by weight of the amount of fuel produced or imported was to be obtained from the Reich monopoly administration and added to the petrol. This quota increased gradually to 10% by October 1932.

In the decades that followed, oil became the primary source of energy. It was not until the oil crises of the 1970s that ethanol found new interest as a fuel. Starting in Brazil and the United States, the use of ethanol made from sugar cane and grain as fuel for cars, as well as other alternative fuels based on renewable raw materials, was increasingly supported by government programs. A global expansion of these efforts came about as a result of the Kyoto Protocol .

Manufacturing

Bioethanol plant in Burlington , Iowa
Bioethanol plant in Zeitz , Saxony-Anhalt

Like conventional alcohol, bioethanol is obtained through fermentation ( alcoholic fermentation ) from sugar ( glucose ) with the help of microorganisms and then purified by thermal separation processes . For use as a fuel additive , bioethanol is also "dried" to a purity of more than 99%.

raw materials

Starch, sugar

Usually the locally available plants with high levels of sugar or starch are used as conventional raw materials : in Latin America sugar cane or the sugar cane molasses obtained from it , in North America corn , in Europe wheat , sugar beet and, in small quantities, corn. Other plants that can be used for bioethanol production are, for example, triticale , sugar millet ( sorghum ), and in Asia also cassava ( manioc ).

In Germany (as of 2016) the following plants for bioethanol are grown on a total of 259,000 hectares of arable land: Grain (without corn) on 197,300 hectares, sugar beet / beet pulp on 30,200 hectares and corn on 21,700 hectares.

Cellulose

The use of low-cost plant residues such as straw, wood scraps and landscape maintenance or energy crops such as The aim increasingly switchgrass (including switchgrass, Panicum virgatum ) or Miscanthus ( Miscanthus sinensis ), that do not require intensive agricultural cultivation and grow on poor quality soils. (see cellulosic ethanol and wood saccharification )

Process steps

In order to obtain the glucose for ethanol production, the raw material must be processed depending on the type:

  • Starchy raw materials such as grain are ground. The starch is converted into sugar in the liquefaction / saccharification process through enzymatic decomposition.
  • Sugary raw materials such as molasses can be fermented directly.
  • Cellulose-containing raw materials such as straw also have to be broken down by acids and enzymes.

The product of the raw material preparation is a sugar-containing mash in the fermentation with yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae is added). The result is an alcoholic mash with around 12% ethanol. This is purified in the distillation / rectification up to a concentration of 94.6% to form what is known as crude alcohol (an azeotrope that can only be separated with great effort by entrainer distillation). In the dewatering process, the remaining water content of around 5% is removed in an adsorption process using a molecular sieve . The end product usually has a purity of over 99.95%. Depending on the application and energetic framework conditions, other process steps (membrane process, pressure swing adsorption, etc.) are also used.

This high degree of purity is necessary for the mixture with gasoline, otherwise the water will settle out. In vehicles that run on pure alcohol (as was the case in the early days in Brazil), water-based, i.e. not completely dehydrated, raw alcohol can also be used.

Byproducts

The plant components such as protein, plant fibers and fats that are not required for ethanol production are used to produce food, feed and fertilizers. A decanter drained here after distillation the stillage and separates solids and thin stillage. The thin liquor is concentrated into syrup. This is followed by the blending with the solids from the decanter. Depending on the requirements, the solid is thermally dried with the syrup to dry stillage, i.e. DDGS (Distiller Dried Grain & Solubles), or used undried as protein-rich cattle feed. In the production of one liter of bioethanol from grain, an additional kilogram of protein feed is produced. Vinasse , which is left behind during molasses fermentation, is also used in agricultural engineering, for example as an animal feed additive or as a fertilizer.

Another possibility for using the stillage is to generate energy through thermal utilization, i.e. H. combustion to generate steam for the ethanol plant. In addition to lowering production costs, this also improves the greenhouse gas balance of production. The fermentation of stillage and other residues from bioethanol production in biogas plants is also of interest in terms of energy . The biogas obtained remains in the plant as process heat or is fed into the network. Like natural gas, it can be used as an energy source in households or as fuel.

Bagasse , the fiber from sugar cane fermentation, is not used directly as animal feed due to its low nutritional value. Instead, the residual energy in the bagasse is often fed back into the distillery's energy cycle via methane fermentation, some of which is multi-stage, which means that the costs per unit of ethanol produced can be reduced. The weak point of this approach and also of the previously very competitive Latin American sugar cane-based biofuel production is the sole focus on the amount of ethanol produced. Despite the lack of flexibility, the great advantage of using sugar cane lies in the cheaper raw material base, the clear location advantage and the lower capital expenditure due to the lack of large-volume drying systems. Currently, these types of ventures are the cheapest ethanol suppliers in the world and represent the model that newcomers like India and Thailand are choosing.

Depending on how the process is conducted, other by-products are possible (e.g. corn oil, carbon dioxide, wheat bran, gluten, yeast, mineral fertilizers, aldehydes).

Cellulosic ethanol

The production from starch and sugar cane will potentially not be able to meet the long-term increasing demand for bioethanol. The limited amount of agricultural land available, ecological problems associated with the necessary intensification of agriculture and competition with the food market limit the production of bioethanol in this conventional way. An alternative is to use crops or plant waste that are unsuitable for human consumption. These materials, which mainly consist of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin , are produced in large quantities and are cheaper than agricultural raw materials rich in starch or sugar. In addition, the potentially usable biomass per unit area is higher, the CO 2 balance more positive and the cultivation in some cases significantly more environmentally friendly.

Ethanol made from vegetable waste is known as cellulosic ethanol or lignocellulosic ethanol. In contrast to conventional bioethanol, cellulosic ethanol has a better CO 2 balance and does not compete with the food industry. However, the processes for producing lignocellulosic ethanol are still under development. The main problem at the moment are the high costs caused by the enzymes for saccharifying cellulose. Therefore bioethanol made from lignocellulose is unlikely to be competitive without subsidies.

The aim is to convert cellulose and hemicellulose into fermentable sugars in so-called biorefineries and to ferment them directly from yeasts into ethanol. The lignin could be used as fuel to power the process. However, some technical difficulties are currently preventing the use of this process. On the one hand, the breakdown of cellulose and hemicellulose into fermentable sugars is difficult and slow due to the complex structure of these compounds, in contrast to the saccharification of starch. On the other hand, most of the microorganisms used to produce ethanol cannot ferment all the types of sugar released from the hemicellulose. However, this is an important prerequisite for an economically mature process. In 2008, around 15 test facilities were operated worldwide for research purposes. In the United States, supported by massive government funding, more than a dozen facilities had been built by 2014. Further plants are located in Spain, the Netherlands and Brazil. There is also a plant in Germany.

Use in selected countries

Sugar cane cultivation in Brazil to alcohol production in order to reduce the dependence on oil imports

Brazil

Ethanol filling station in Paraty

In Brazil, in the 1980s, as an alternative to foreign exchange-intensive oil imports, the “Proàlcool” program established a distinctly indigenous industry for ethanol fuel based on the production and refining of sugar cane. Due to the high world market prices for sugar in the 1990s, ethanol production in the sugar industry in Brazil almost came to a standstill, but there has been a strong upswing in recent years.

In the beginning, pure ethanol was used, which requires its own engines. In the meantime so-called flexible fuel vehicles are predominantly used, which are able to burn any mixture of gasoline and ethanol. Their share in car sales in 2007 was 86%. In 2014 around 90% of all cars in Brazil were equipped with flex fuel.

At all filling stations, gasoline with a share of 20 to 25% ethanol is available. The exact percentage is determined by the government depending on the sugar market.

Brazil was the world's largest producer and consumer until 2005, but has now been overtaken by the United States. Production in 2007 was just under 19 billion liters. In 2018, 30.5 billion liters were produced in Brazil. Domestic consumption in 2007 was 16.7 billion liters, an increase of 3.7 billion liters compared to the previous year. From January to August 2018 consumption was 11.5 billion liters, which is an increase of 41.8% compared to the same period of the previous year. In 2006, 3.9 billion liters of ethanol were exported (2005: 2.6 billion liters), of which 1.7 billion liters to the United States, 346 million to the Netherlands, 225 million to Japan and 204 million to Japan Sweden. This makes Brazil by far the largest ethanol exporter in the world. In 2007, contrary to general expectations, exports fell to 3.8 billion liters. In 2015 only a little over a billion liters were exported. A significant proportion of the exports to the United States are not made directly, but are processed through Caribbean countries (especially Jamaica) for tax reasons. There, the ethanol is dehydrated and then shipped to the United States on preferential terms (Caribbean Basin Initiative).

Because the sugar cane residue (bagasse) is burned to generate electricity and process heat, the ethanol factories in Brazil have a clearly positive energy balance.

In 2008, even more ethanol (15.8 billion liters) than gasoline (15.5 billion liters) was bought in Brazil (as of October 2008).

United States

Ethanol information board at a gas station in California

In the United States too, the oil shock in the mid-1970s led to a national fuel-ethanol program to reduce dependence on oil imports. Tax relief for fuel mixtures with ethanol made from grain ("Gasohol" = E10) enabled the development of a fuel-ethanol industry.

After the oil crisis in 1973, some US states from the “ Grain Belt ” began to provide financial support for the production of ethanol from corn. The "Energy Tax Act" of 1978 allowed an exemption from the excise tax for biofuels , mainly gasoline. The revenue foregone from excise tax exemption alone was estimated at $ 1.4 billion per year. Another U.S. federal program guaranteed a loan to grow crops for ethanol production, and in 1986 the United States even gave free grain to ethanol makers.

With the “Clean Air Act” in the 1990s, there was a further aspect for the use of ethanol: the improvement of air quality in large cities by reducing emissions from road traffic. In August 2005, the American President George W. Bush signed a comprehensive energy law, which among other things would increase the production of ethanol and biodiesel from 14.8 to 27.8 billion liters (or from 4 to 7.5 billion US gallons) plans within the next ten years. In fact, 44.2 million tons of bioethanol were produced in 2015.

The production and demand of ethanol in the United States is growing steadily. Around 700 of the total of 165,000 petrol stations had petrol pumps with E85 in 2010. In 2018 there were already more than 3,300 E85 filling stations. Ethanol fuel is primarily available in the Midwest and California , which is where most of the US ethanol is refined. In June 2006, the capacity was 18 billion liters (4.8 billion gallons) of ethanol per year. In May 2019, the capacity was around 64 billion liters (16.975 billion gallons). In 2007, 24.6 billion liters of ethanol were produced, and around 60 billion liters in 2018.

In June 2011 the US Senate approved a bill that aims to abolish subsidies of US $ 6 billion annually to the American bioethanol industry. So far, this industry has received state aid of 45 US cents per gallon (12 US cents per liter). The import tariff on ethanol of 54 US cents per gallon (14 US cents per liter) is also to be lifted. The actions of Donald Trump did not lead to the abolition of subsidies.

Colombia

Colombia's ethanol fuel program began in 2002 when the government passed a law to fortify gasoline with oxygenated chemical compounds. Initially, the main intention was to reduce the emissions of carbon monoxide from cars. Bioethanol was later exempt from petroleum tax, which made ethanol cheaper than gasoline. This trend was exacerbated as gasoline prices have been rising since 2004, increasing interest in renewable fuels (at least for cars). In Colombia, gasoline and ethanol prices are controlled by the government. In addition to this ethanol program, a program for biodiesel is planned to enrich diesel fuel with oxygenated compounds and to produce renewable fuel from plants.

At first, the Colombian sugar industry was particularly interested in ethanol production. The government's goal was to gradually switch car fuel to a mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline. Plantings for ethanol production are tax-subsidized.

The first ethanol fuel plant started production in October 2005 in the Colombian province of Valle del Cauca, with an output of 300,000 liters per day. Five systems have been in operation since March 2006 at the latest with a total capacity of 1,050,000 liters per day. In the Valle del Cauca, sugar is harvested all year round and the new distilleries are regularly used. The investments in these facilities total around 100 million dollars. By 2007 at the latest, production should be 2.5 million liters per day in order to achieve the target of 10% ethanol in gasoline. However, this goal was not achieved. In 2011, only 1.25 million liters were produced per day. The ethanol fuel produced is currently mainly used in major nearby cities such as Bogotá , Cali and Pereira . Production is not yet sufficient for the rest of the country.

Bioethanol consumption (GWh)
No. Country 2005 2006 2007 2016
1 GermanyGermany Germany 1 682 3,544 3 408 8 678
2 FranceFrance France 871 1 719 3 174 5 513
3 SwedenSweden Sweden 1 681 1 894 2 113 1 268
4th SpainSpain Spain 1 314 1 332 1 310 1 576
5 PolandPoland Poland 329 611 991 1 950
6th United KingdomUnited Kingdom United Kingdom 502 563 907 4,522
7th BulgariaBulgaria Bulgaria - 0 769 383
8th AustriaAustria Austria 0 0 254 614
9 SlovakiaSlovakia Slovakia 0 4th 154 180
10 LithuaniaLithuania Lithuania 10 64 135 75
11 HungaryHungary Hungary 28 136 107 509
12 NetherlandsNetherlands Netherlands 0 179 101 1 402
13 DenmarkDenmark Denmark 0 42 70 512
14th IrelandIreland Ireland 0 13 54 388
15th LatviaLatvia Latvia 5 12 20th 97
16 LuxembourgLuxembourg Luxembourg 0 0 10 102
17th SloveniaSlovenia Slovenia 0 2 9 50
18th Czech RepublicCzech Republic Czech Republic 0 13 2 644
19th PortugalPortugal Portugal 0 0 0 237
20th ItalyItaly Italy 59 0 0 378
21st BelgiumBelgium Belgium 0 0 0 473
22nd GreeceGreece Greece 0 0 0 0
23 FinlandFinland Finland 0 10 n. v. 836
24 RomaniaRomania Romania - 0 n. v. 946
25th MaltaMalta Malta 0 0 n. v. 0
26th EstoniaEstonia Estonia 0 0 n. v. 30th
27 Cyprus RepublicRepublic of Cyprus Cyprus 0 0 n. v. 0
27 EU total 6481 10138 13563 31351
1 t oil unit = 11.63 MWh n.a. = not available
Bioethanol production (GWh)
No. Country 2005 2006 2017
1 Germany 978 2554 7 704
2 Spain 1796 2382 k. A.
3 France 853 1482 9 719
4th Sweden 907 830 k. A.
5 Italy 47 759 k. A.
6th Poland 379 711 k. A.
7th Hungary 207 201 k. A.
8th Lithuania 47 107 k. A.
9 Netherlands 47 89 k. A.
10 Czech Republic 0 89 k. A.
11 Latvia 71 71 k. A.
12 Finland 77 0 k. A.
13 United Kingdom k. A. k. A. 2,489
14th Austria k. A. k. A. 1 482
27 EU total 5411 9274 k. A.
100 l bioethanol = 79.62 kg,
1 t bioethanol = 0.64 oil units

Europe

Already in the 1980s in Europe there was largely unnoticed by the public the addition of 5% ethanol to gasoline to increase the octane number. Later, the production of ETBE from surplus wine began in France and Spain.

Since 2003, the European Community has been promoting the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels as a substitute for petrol and diesel fuels. The biofuel guideline EC guideline 2003/30 / EG specified guideline values ​​for the proportion of biofuels as a substitute for conventional fuels (based on the energy content) in traffic: 2% by 2005, 5.75% by 2010. (The values ​​do not represent The addition of petrol or diesel, but also indicate the desired total share of all renewables in fuel consumption.) In addition, the Energy Tax Directive (2003/96 / EC) allowed the member states to waive the mineral oil tax for biofuels up to 100%. National implementation was voluntary and most Member States did not meet the 2005 target.

The new EU Directive 2009/28 / EC for Renewable Energy (RED for Renewable Energy Directive for short) introduced mandatory targets. The new EU target is now called

  • 10% renewable energy for the transport sector by 2020

In addition to biofuels (liquid, gaseous), this percentage also includes electric and hydrogen drives. Biofuels made from waste, residues and (ligno) cellulose-containing material are assessed twice.

Sustainability criteria

In addition, the directive introduces strict criteria for sustainable and socially responsible production that apply to both European producers and imports. Central subject areas are the minimum saving of greenhouse gas emissions, provisions for agricultural land use and compliance with environmental and social standards.

Raw materials from areas with a high carbon stock (primary forests, wetlands, peat bogs, nature reserves) and the like may not be used.

Biofuel producers must demonstrate a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (CO 2 , methane, nitrous oxide, etc.). This means that over the entire life cycle (from the cultivation of raw materials to fuel production to the motor vehicle) fewer greenhouse gas emissions may arise than fossil fuels, namely at least

  • minus 35% from 2011 for new production facilities, after 2017 minus 60%
  • For systems that were already in operation in 2008, minus 35% applies from 2013, after 2017 minus 50%

In 2008 (2007) a total of around 2.8 (1.8) billion liters of ethanol were produced in the European Union, but around 3.5 (2.6) billion liters were consumed. In 2015, 5.4 billion liters were used, but only 4.2 million liters were produced. Most of the difference is imported from Brazil. The European Union ranks third in terms of production, ahead of China, but far behind the United States and Brazil.

Germany

Bioethanol production: Germany - EU
Year (million t) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2018
Germany 0.34 0.31 0.46 0.59 0.60 0.57 0.61
EU 1.24 1.4 2.22 2.90 k. A. k. A. k. A.

In Germany there has only been a market for bioethanol since 2004. According to industry information, around 80,000 tonnes of bioethanol were sold that year, the majority of which was used as ETBE fuel. One of the largest European plants for bioethanol production with an annual capacity of 285,000 t is located in Zeitz ( Saxony-Anhalt ). Here CropEnergies (formerly Südzucker Bioethanol GmbH) produces bioethanol from wheat , barley , triticale and corn . In the second largest German plant with an annual capacity of 200,000 t, Verbio produces bioethanol mainly from rye in Schwedt, Brandenburg . Overall, the German bioethanol plants had an annual capacity of 930,000 tons in 2011. In 2017, 672,930 tons were produced.

Bioethanol in the form of E85 was not taxed like fossil mineral oil until 2015, the bioethanol portion was not subject to mineral oil tax, so E85 was tax-privileged for the bioethanol portion. This tax break was discontinued on December 31, 2015. With the Biofuel Quota Act , the legislature has created a regulatory instrument for lower mixing ratios since 2006 to promote the addition of bioethanol to gasoline: The mineral oil industry is obliged to reduce the proportion of gasoline that is increasing every year (1.2% in 2007 to 6.25%) 2010) add bioethanol. These shares are then fully subject to energy tax (bioethanol 65.4 cents). With this combination measure, the Federal Government wants to support the mostly medium-sized biofuel industry by securing the sales market.

Logo of the German Institute for Standardization DIN 51625
Area Fuels for automobiles
title Ethanol fuel requirements and test methods
Latest edition 2008-08
ISO

In spring 2008, the planned increase in the proportion of ethanol to 10% (so-called E10 ) came under fire because politicians, automobile manufacturers and the Association of the Automobile Industry made contradicting statements about compatibility. Since it remained open whether the models not explicitly designed for this purpose would have to be refueled with SuperPlus , which is the only variety to retain the 5% ethanol content, the regulation planned by the federal government for the introduction of E10 was suspended. In August 2008, with the first edition of DIN 51625, requirements and test methods for ethanol fuel were defined for the first time in a DIN standard . E10 is considered to be compatible with almost all vehicles.

E10 was introduced in Germany at the beginning of 2011.

Austria

In implementing the biofuel directive, Austria has set itself goals that are above the EU requirements (2.5% by 2005 | 4.3% by 2007 | 5.75% by 2008). The target is also 5.75% in 2019. With changes to the Fuel Ordinance and the Mineral Oil Tax Act, a substitution obligation was introduced. With the start of production at Agrana's bioethanol plant in Lower Austria based on wheat, corn and sugar beet (2008), the Austrian market for E10 is theoretically covered.

Other European countries

Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFV) have been marketed in Sweden since 2001. The ethanol is produced in Sweden from grain, sugar cane and also from waste from local wood processing. E85 is available at more than 140 public filling stations. Sweden's goal is to become completely oil independent by 2030 .

The UK has a policy of increasing the use of biofuels, including ethanol, even though taxation on alternative fuels such as biodiesel is almost as high as on conventional fossil fuels. Spain is the third largest producer of bioethanol in Europe after France and Germany. Mainly barley and wheat are fermented here.

Effects

The production and use of biofuels is often debated in connection with the Kyoto Protocol . Ethanol obtained from biomass is a renewable energy source which, compared to fossil energy sources, offers advantages in terms of CO 2 emissions, however, when cultivating energy crops it is associated with high levels of climate-damaging gases such as nitrous oxide . Despite a positive energy balance, there is discussion about how environmentally friendly the production of ethanol actually is in view of the need for cultivation areas (monocultures).

Energy balance

In order for bioethanol fuel to make a meaningful contribution to the energy industry, production must have a positive energy balance . The main share of the primary energy used (input) is made up of the renewable and CO 2 -neutral raw material biomass. The biofuels that have been launched on the market, such as biodiesel and vegetable oil made from rapeseed and bioethanol made from grain, have further potential for saving fossil fuels, e.g. B. by replacing mineral fertilizers with residues and using by-products. In the production process, however, they already require very little fossil primary energy. New biofuels that are still on the market, e.g. B. biogas from maize or bioethanol from lignocellulosic biomass such as straw, on the other hand, require a larger biomass input for their respective production processes.

If energy crops are used for biofuel production, fossil fuels will continue to be required for fertilizers, harvesting, transport and processing. In relation to the production of petrol or diesel, however, 60 to 95% fewer fossil fuels have to be used. The bandwidths of the energy balance of the different biofuels differ widely due to the diversity of the influencing factors mentioned above. Regardless of the energy crop used, the consumption of fossil primary energy (input) is always well below the primary energy used for the production of fossil fuels.

A large number of studies have examined the energy balances of the various ways in which energy crops can be grown and used. A study by the University of Hohenheim comes to the conclusion that bioethanol production from grain in large-scale plants only has a slightly positive energy balance. The scientists also emphasize that the balance of changes in production conditions could be significantly improved. As an alternative, they propose the use of small systems in which the energy-intensive drying of so-called stillage is dispensed with and this can be further recycled in the form of biogas and fertilizers. In their opinion, the total energy gain from such sustainable use could be increased to over 14,000 MJ / t grain, which corresponds to seven times the energy gain compared to large-scale production.

Energy balance for the large-scale production of bioethanol, data from Senn 2002
Process step MJ / t grain
Grain production −1,367
Grain storage −150
Ethanol production −2,500
Slurry drying −2,400
Total ethanol production −6,417
Energy content of ethanol 8,480
Energy yield / t grain 2,063
Energy gain / energy input ratio 1.32

Further scientific studies deal with: a. with more efficient production processes in the fermentation of alcohol in order to further improve the energy balance.

Carbon footprint

When the raw materials are fermented and the bioethanol is burned, the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is released; However, since the same amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere was bound by photosynthesis during the growth of the raw material plants, these chemical processes (photosynthesis, fermentation, combustion) are CO 2 -neutral in the addition . Since additional energy is required in the production of the raw materials and in the manufacture of ethanol, the manufacturing process is overall not CO 2 -neutral or even climate-neutral.

According to a preliminary theoretical study of the chemistry Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen in 2007 of climate-damaging effect of the resulting in the cultivation, particularly in fertilizer, power plants makes nitrous oxide (laughing gas) to "cooling" effect of the saved CO 2 to a large extent canceled out and may even lead to greater warming compared to fossil fuel. According to the results, rapeseed fuel ( biodiesel ) causes 1 to 1.7 times the relative warming compared to fossil fuel. For the energy crop maize, which was also examined, the relative warming was 0.9–1.5, and for sugar cane alone there was a climate-friendly effect with a relative warming of 0.5–0.9.

However, the publication of the study by Crutzen was rejected by renowned scientific magazines. On the one hand, the study is based only on a separate model calculation for nitrous oxide emissions, which means that the mathematically determined values ​​have not been confirmed by tests. On the other hand, the relevance of nitrous oxide emissions is exaggerated. For reasons of cost, nitrogen fertilization is actually becoming increasingly rare in agriculture. The final version of the Crutzen study, published in 2008, contains additional data with recalculated factors, each taking into account one of the objections raised by other scientists. According to this, through a high efficiency of the nitrogen fertilizer, through a high proportion of liquid manure in the fertilizer (20%) or through the efficient use of by-products in fuel production, the warming factors for rapeseed can be up to 0.5, for maize up to 0.4 and for sugar cane can be reduced to 0.3. That would correspond to a global warming that is 2, 2.5 or 3 times lower than with the use of fossil fuel.

For the USA, recent studies at the University of Minnesota come to the conclusion that bioethanol made from grain, burned in internal combustion engines, has an extremely poor climate balance compared to other scenarios.

Air pollution

Compared to conventional unleaded gasoline , ethanol burns cleaner to carbon dioxide and water. In the United States, the Clean Air Act requires the addition of oxygen-rich compounds to reduce carbon monoxide emissions. The use of the additive MTBE , which is hazardous to groundwater , is reduced and replaced by ETBE .

By using pure ethanol (E100) instead of gasoline, the measured carbon dioxide emissions are reduced by around 13%. However, the photosynthesis cycle effectively reduces emissions by over 80%. The advantages are offset by the environmental pollution caused by the production of ethanol, which is taken into account in the CO 2 balance.

Because pure bioethanol, also known as bio alcohol , burns residue-free (soot-free), it is often used in open fireplaces in the home.

Water pollution

In the production of biomass for the production of agrosprit, the same water pollution occurs as in any other intensive cultivation of agricultural products. According to a study by Simon Donner of the University of British Columbia and Chris Kucharik of the University of Wisconsin, pollution at the Mississippi Estuary will expand from its current 20,000 square kilometers to an even larger area if the United States moves forward with plans to produce agro-fuel from corn as previously planned. In this area, according to the study, there will be such a strong over-fertilization that the resulting algae bloom and the subsequent lack of oxygen after the algae have died will make the area no longer habitable for other marine life. It would have the same effects if the corn were not used for ethanol but as animal feed. It is therefore necessary to apply good professional practice in order to reduce the inputs of fertilizers and pollutants into the environment.

Agriculture

If the demand for bioethanol continues to rise, intensive cultivation methods will be necessary. In Europe, instead of being set aside with subsidies , surplus arable land could be used for the production of bioethanol or diesel without creating competition for land . In developing and emerging countries , the global market demand for bioethanol could lead to a relocation of the crops grown. Growing food could be neglected in favor of ethanol crops that generate foreign currency.

By intensifying agriculture for bioethanol production, the ecological problems known to all agricultural areas arise. This includes:

A perception of the classic points of criticism of agriculture carried out with industrial methods is also required from the perspective of renewable raw materials, in order to include these in the weighing of the goods. In order to minimize these problems, concepts of sustainable agriculture are required and developed.

Competition for space

In the course of the 2007/2008 price increase for raw materials and food, the role of bioethanol as a competitor to food production came into focus. The use of corn in the United States in particular met with criticism. Various analyzes have shown that biofuels only contributed to the global rise in food prices. The main factors are population growth and increasing meat consumption in densely populated emerging countries such as China and India. A UN specialist conference ruled: "Biofuels did not trigger the crisis."

Agriculture and Economics

In Germany, bioethanol is made from grain, sugar beet and, to a lesser extent, corn. The yield in l / ha depends on the respective plant. The yield of sugar beet is much higher than that of wheat. Grains such as oats, rye, barley, wheat and triticale deliver, depending on the process, far higher quality animal feed than corn, potatoes and sugar beet have previously allowed. With protein contents of 40% and higher, these fermented grain feeds potentially reach larger markets than just the use in concentrated feed for dairy cattle as before. When it comes to the price of ethanol, however, the burners have to compete with the world market, because fuel alcohol, as a freely tradable good, is not subject to the regulatory measures of the spirits monopoly. The full costs of producing one cubic meter of bioethanol from sugar cane in Brazil are only 200 to 250 US dollars , in Germany 450 to 500 euros , which means that the costs in Brazil are less than half as high as in Germany .

Forecasts for European production show an annual output of 7 million tons of dried, fermented feed, of which one million tons in Germany alone, for which German distilleries buy up to 3 million tons of grain from agriculture. But in addition to a few small-scale pilot projects , these plants in Germany have so far only existed on paper and now the attempt is being made not to repeat the mistakes of the American ethanol industry: There are only two large companies of over 250 companies that got into this business 20 years ago left free. The downfall of these projects is largely due to a lack of understanding of the potential of the by-product produced as animal feed: the resulting stillage was mostly given to agriculture for free or only at a cost. This is practiced in a similar way by the German schnapps distillers today, but these companies earn money from their own branded product or from higher-quality neutral alcohol in beverage quality. For ethanol as a biofuel, however, the price is fixed. There is therefore economic flexibility in purchasing raw materials and in marketing the by-products.

So far, around a fifth of the corn gluten feed produced there has been exported to Europe from North America. In view of the new development, great efforts are now being made to look for further applications for “DDGS” ( distillers dry grain solubles ). The development is evident in the biorefinery in Springfield , Kentucky , which opened in 2002 and is the only facility of its kind in the world. There, Alltech develops downstream fermentation processes for the ethanol and feed industry to produce higher-quality feed and new food additives, as well as new cellulose complexes as feed additives.

economic aspects

Comparison of biofuels in Germany
Biofuel Yield / ha Fuel equivalence
[l]
Fuel equivalent
per area [l / ha]
Mileage
[km / ha]
Vegetable oil (rapeseed oil) 1590 l 0.96 1526 23300 + 17600
Biodiesel (rapeseed methyl ester) 1550 l 0.91 1411 23300 + 17600
Bioethanol (wheat) 2760 l 0.65 1794 22400 + 14400
Biomethane (with corn) 3540 kg 1.4 4956 67600
BtL (from energy crops) 4030 l 0.97 3909 64000
BtL (made of straw) 1361 l 0.97 1320 21000
  1. 1 l of biofuel or 1 kg of biomethane corresponds to this amount of conventional fuel
  2. without by-products
  3. separate calculation, not based on the other data
  4. a b c with biomethane from by-products rapeseed cake / stillage / straw
  5. a b based on FT fuels

Some economists argue that bioethanol as a gasoline substitute is only profitable for farmers and industry through government subsidies. According to the US Department of Energy , for every unit of energy used to make ethanol from corn, 1.3 units are returned. With other plants (sugar cane, Chinese grass) the efficiency is better.

More intensive agriculture, higher yields and possibly genetically modified plants could make ethanol production more profitable from an economic point of view. Research is being carried out on special breeds and genetic manipulations. A high oil price also makes the use of other biomass (e.g. straw) economically interesting.

Since the demand for the limited resource crude oil - also due to the economic development in China - will continue to rise, high oil prices are to be expected. The political goal of some countries is to make themselves less dependent on oil imports and to strive for an energy mix. Since in regions like the United States or Europe it is not possible to produce as much bioethanol as would be necessary to replace crude oil, a new dependency on imports from countries with corresponding cultivation and production facilities could arise.

potential

The potential of bioenergies depends primarily on the availability of cultivation areas on which renewable raw materials (NawaRos) can be grown for energy generation. The amount of agricultural, forestry and other organic residues is also important.

According to a report by the German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), the technical potential is between 30 and 120 exajoules (EJ), taking into account very far-reaching nature conservation criteria, which corresponds to around 6 to 25 percent of the global primary energy demand . Together with biogenic residues, bioenergy can provide 80 to 170 EJ and thus 16 to 35 percent of the world's energy needs. Due to economic and political restrictions, however, it is possible that only around half of the potential can be absorbed (i.e. 8 to 17.5% of world energy demand).

Other studies calculate far higher possible potentials of up to 1440 EJ (three times the global energy demand), in particular due to higher assumptions about the level of yield per unit area, especially on degraded soils , which were conservatively assessed in the WBGU report. A study commissioned by the Renewable Energy Agency comes to the conclusion that if half of the world's degraded areas are used, more than 40 percent of today's global primary energy demand can be covered by energy crops. Together with biogenic residues, half of the world's total energy demand can therefore be met with the help of bioenergy without having to compete with nature conservation or food supply.

In Brazil in 2005 sugar cane was planted on 5.6 million hectares . Half of this was processed into 15 million m³ of bioethanol. In 2014 sugar cane was cultivated on 10.4 million hectares, of which 24 million m³ of bioethanol were produced from a third. According to EMBRAPA, there is a potential of 90 million hectares for bioethanol production.

Web links

Wiktionary: Bioethanol  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

literature

  • Norbert Schmitz: Biogenic Fuels - Fuels of the Future? In: Technology assessment, theory and practice . tape 15 , no. 1 , April 2006, p. 16–26 ( tatup-journal.de - free full text).

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