Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park: Difference between revisions

Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
IUCN category II (national park)
	Dugong, a vulnerable marine mammal
	Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Location in Tamil Nadu, India Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park (India)
Location	Coastal regions of Thoothukkudi and Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu, India
Nearest city	Rameswaram
Coordinates	09°08′15″N 79°28′21″E / 9.13750°N 79.47250°E
Area	560 km2 (220 sq mi)
Established	1986
Governing body	Tamil Nadu Ministry of Environment and Forests
	forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_gmmnp.html

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The Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park is a protected area of India consisting of 21 small islands (islets) and adjacent coral reefs in the Gulf of Mannar in the Indian Ocean. It lies 1 to 10 km away from the east coast of Tamil Nadu, India for 160 km between Thoothukudi (Tuticorin) and Dhanushkodi. It is the core area of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve which includes a 10 km buffer zone around the park, including the populated coastal area.^[1] The park has a high diversity of plants and animals in its marine, intertidal and near shore habitats. Public access inside the park is limited to glass-bottom boat rides.^[2] It was established as a National Park in 1986.^[3]

Geography[edit]

The 560 km² (220 sq mi) park is part of the 140 km long and 25 km wide Mannar barrier reef. It lies between 8° 47' to 9° 15' N latitude and 78° 12' to 79° 14' E longitude. The 21 islands vary from 0.25 hectares (0.62 acres) to 130 ha. (321.2 acres). The total area of the islands is 6.23 km² (2.41 sq mi).^[4]

The islands (listed southwest to northeast)

Tuticorin group: (4 islands)
Vaan, 16.0 ha ^[5] 8°50′11″N 78°12′38″E / 8.83639°N 78.21047°E / 8.83639; 78.21047
Koswari, 19.50 ha 8°52′08″N 78°13′30″E / 8.86879°N 78.22506°E / 8.86879; 78.22506
Vilanguchalli, 0.95 ha 8°56′17″N 78°16′11″E / 8.93815°N 78.26969°E / 8.93815; 78.26969, now 1 m below mean low tide level as a result of excessive coral mining.
Kariyachalli, 16.46 ha 8°57′15″N 78°15′08″E / 8.95409°N 78.25235°E / 8.95409; 78.25235

Vembar group: (3 islands)
Uppu Thanni, 22.94 ha, elevation 4 m 9°05′21″N 78°29′29″E / 9.08921°N 78.49148°E / 9.08921; 78.49148
Puluvini Challi, 6.12 ha, elevation 5.5 m 9°06′12″N 78°32′13″E / 9.10320°N 78.53688°E / 9.10320; 78.53688
Nalla Thanni, 101.00 ha, elevation 11.9 m (recently populated) 9°06′24″N 78°34′44″E / 9.10667°N 78.57885°E / 9.10667; 78.57885

Kilakarai group: (7 islands)
Anaipar, 11.00 ha, elevation 2.1 m 9°09′11″N 78°41′41″E / 9.15294°N 78.69481°E / 9.15294; 78.69481
Vali Munai, 6.72 ha, elevation 1.2 m 9°09′13″N 78°43′50″E / 9.15354°N 78.73052°E / 9.15354; 78.73052
Poovarasan Patti, 0.50 ha, elevation 1.2 m 9°09′15″N 78°46′01″E / 9.15413°N 78.76695°E / 9.15413; 78.76695
Appa, 28.63 ha, elevation 6.4 m 9°09′57″N 78°49′33″E / 9.16582°N 78.82596°E / 9.16582; 78.82596
Talairi, 75.15 ha, elevation 2.7 m 9°10′53″N 78°54′24″E / 9.18133°N 78.90673°E / 9.18133; 78.90673
Valai 10.10 ha, elevation 3.0 m 9°11′03″N 78°56′19″E / 9.18421°N 78.93866°E / 9.18421; 78.93866
Mulli, 10.20 ha, elevation 1.2 m 9°11′11″N 78°58′05″E / 9.18641°N 78.96810°E / 9.18641; 78.96810

Mandapam group:(7 islands)
Musal, 124.00 ha, elevation 0.9 m 9°11′57″N 79°04′31″E / 9.19912°N 79.07530°E / 9.19912; 79.07530 (recently populated)
Manoli, 25.90 ha 9°12′56″N 79°07′42″E / 9.21564°N 79.12834°E / 9.21564; 79.12834
Manoli-Putti 2.34 ha 9°12′57″N 79°07′41″E / 9.21581°N 79.12800°E / 9.21581; 79.12800
Poomarichan 16.58 ha 9°14′43″N 79°10′48″E / 9.24538°N 79.17993°E / 9.24538; 79.17993
Pullivasal, 29.95 ha 9°14′13″N 79°11′28″E / 9.23699°N 79.19100°E / 9.23699; 79.19100
Kurusadai, 65.80 ha 9°14′49″N 79°12′34″E / 9.24690°N 79.20945°E / 9.24690; 79.20945 was recently populated.^[6] Its surrounding shallow waters harbour three species of seagrass that are found nowhere else in India. Representatives of every animal phylum known (except amphibians) are found on this island.^[7]
Shingle, 12.69 ha, elevation .6m 9°14′30″N 79°14′08″E / 9.24174°N 79.23563°E / 9.24174; 79.23563

Tidal amplitude in the area is about .5m.^[5]

There were two more islands named Pandayan and Punnaiyadi at 8°46′51″N 78°11′43″E / 8.78075°N 78.19536°E / 8.78075; 78.19536 that were destroyed for construction of the new Tuticorn Port facilities.

Flora[edit]

The park includes marine components such as coral reefs, seaweed communities, sea grasses, and mangroves.^[8]

Mangroves dominate the intertidal zones of the park islands. They consist of species of the genera Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Ceriops and Lumnitzera.^[9] The introduced tree genus Prosopis is dominant on land in all the islands. The flowering herb Pemphis acidula (family Lythraceae) is the only endemic plant species.^[10] 12 species of sea grass and 147 species of seaweeds were recorded. This vegetation provides important feeding grounds for vulnerable marine mammals such as the dugong,^[6] endangered green turtles and olive ridley turtles.^[11]

Fauna[edit]

Vertebrates

The dugong, a vulnerable marine mammal, is the flagship mammal of the park. It is an important habitat for the cetaceans: Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, finless porpoise, spinner dolphin,^[12] common dolphin,^[13] Risso's dolphin, melon-headed whale, and dwarf sperm whale.^[14] Larger whales include sperm whale,^[15] minke whale, Bryde's whale,^[16] sei whale,^[17] and critically endangered species including humpback whale, fin whale,^[18] and blue whale.^[19]

About 510 (23%) of the 2,200 fin fish species in Indian waters are found in the Gulf, making it the most highly diverse fish habitat in India. Coral associated ornamental fishes of the family Chaetodontidae (butterfly fish), parrotfish, Amphiprion spp. (clown fish), Holocentrus spp. (squirrel fish), Scarus spp. (parrot fish), Lutjanus spp. (snappers) and Abudefduf saxatilis (sergeant major) are abundant.^[20]

A unique endemic species of Balanoglossus – Ptychodera fluva, a living fossil that links invertebrates and vertebrates, has been recorded only at Kurusadai.^[7]

Invertebrates

Four species each of shrimp and lobster, 106 species of crab, 17 species of sea cucumber, and 466 species of mollusc including 271 gastropods, 174 bivalves, 5 polyplacophorans, 16 cephalopods and 5 scaphopods,^[21] 108 species of sponge, and 100 species of echinoderm occur in the Gulf.^[22]

The coral fauna includes 106 species from 30 genus of hermatypes and 11 species from 10 genus of ahermatypes, including 13 new species, giving a total of 117 species from 14 families and 40 genus. The reefs in this area are narrow fringing reefs located 150 to 300 m. from the shore of the islands and patch reefs rising up from depths of 2 to 9 m. and extending up to 2 km. long and 50 m. wide. Large areas of these reefs are in generally poor condition due to destructive human activities of the 150,000 persons living along the coast. Nutrient and other pollution loads are high due to agriculture, deforestation, industry, urbanization and septic pollution. It appears that the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park seem to be healthy and in good condition, despite high rates of sedimentation and other threats.^[23] However, live coral cover is only about 35%. Various algae cover much of the dead coral.^[24]

Stony coral species of families Poritidae and Faviidae constitute the dominant reef builders here. Coral reefs near some of the islands have been heavily damaged by exploitation as raw materials for industrial ventures such as cement industries, brick manufacture, masonry work and lime kilns. Though legal quarrying of the reefs is now stopped, up to 250 m³/day of reef were destroyed for many years.^[9]

Habitation[edit]

The islands are uninhabited except for Krusadai, Musal and Nallathanni islands where antipoaching sheds are operating.^[25] Along the coast near the park there are about 125 villages which support about 100,000 people who are mainly Marakeyars, a local community principally engaged in fishing.^[4]^[9]

Habitat degradation[edit]

Experts say that Vaan Island, one of the four islands of the Tuticorn group, has split in two and if immediate efforts are not taken then the island would soon vanish under the sea. Vaan Island, which is the southernmost of the 21 islands in the Gulf of Mannar, was initially spread across 16 hectares, but had shrunk alarmingly by around 10.3 hectares to its current 5.7 hectares in less than three decades. According to J K Patterson Edward, director of Suganthi Devadasan Marine Research Institute (SDMRI), Tuticorin,"Rampant coral mining by people of the fishing villages along the coast is the main cause of the devastation to the island. Coral mining was banned in 2005, but the damage had already been done." Two of the 21 islands have already submerged around a decade ago.^[26]

References[edit]

^ UNDP (1994). "Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve's Coastal Biodiversity" (PDF). UNDP, Project Brief, New York. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ Shaunak B Modi (2011). "Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park - Tamil Nadu Forest Dept. (GOMNP)". Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ Madhav, Sughosh; Nazneen, Sadaf; Singh, Pardeep, eds. (2021). Coastal ecosystems : environmental importance, current challenges and conservation measures. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. p. 15.
^ ^a ^b Undp gombr (October 2006). "Annual Project review, Conservation and sustainable use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve's Coastal Biodiversity" (PDF). UNDP GEF APR/PIR 2006 – Biodiversity (1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006). UNDP. Retrieved 16 October 2007.
^ ^a ^b IOM (2007). "Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve". Ecologically Important Areas of Tamil Nadu Coast. Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ ^a ^b J. K. Patterson Edward; Jamila Patterson; G. Mathews; Dan Wilhelmsson. "Status of Coral Reefs of the Tuticorin Coast, Gulf of Mannar, Southeast Coast of India" (PDF). Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ ^a ^b OSTI staff (July 2004). "Focus on an Island" (PDF). Ocean Science and Technology for Islands Newsletter, Vol 2.3 Issue 5, p.2. National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai. Retrieved 15 October 2007.^{[dead link]}
^ "Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, India". UNESCO. 18 January 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park". Ecologically Important Areas of Tamil Nadu Coast. Tamil Nadu Forest Department. 2007. Archived from the original on 27 October 2007. Retrieved 14 October 2007.
^ Jeganathan Stalin (2007). "Vegetation status in the offshore islands of Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Tamil Nadu". Wildlife Institute of India. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ E.V. Muley; J.R.B. Alfred; K. Venkataraman; M.V.M. Wafar (2000). "Status of Coral Reefs of India". 9 ICRS, BALI. Archived from the original on 10 April 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. http://www.tuticorincity.info/plan-your-tour/Gulf-of-Mannar-Marine-National-Park.html. Tuticorin City. retrieved 13-05-2014
^ Wells (1995). "Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park". Cetacean habitat directory for MPAs, national and international sanctuaries. Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ Active Asia Travel. http://www.hotelsatmaldives.com/Whales.html Archived 13 May 2014 at archive.today retrieved 13-05-2014
^ Accounts of Whale Watching in Sri Lanka. http://www.jetwingeco.com/content/accounts-whale-watching-sri-lanka. Jetwing Eco Holidays. retrieved on 13-05-2014
^ Balaenoptera edeni. "Bryde's Whale". Archived from the original on 13 May 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2014.. Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India. retrieved 13-05-2014
^ Kasim H.M., Balasubramanian S.T., 1989. On the stranding of Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis along Gulf of Mannar coast. Marine Fisheries Information Service, Technical and Extension Series, 95. pp. 12-14. Eprints@CMFRI. http://eprints.cmfri.org.in/3068/. retrieved on 13-05-2014
^ Miller M., Scott A., Gulf of Mannar. http://www.psu.edu/dept/nkbiology/India/Gulf_of_Mannar.pdf. Biosphere Reserve Project. retrieved on 13-05-2014
^ Marichamy R., Rajapandian M.E., Srinivasan A., 1984. The stranding of rorqual whale Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus) in the Gulf of Mannar. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India. 26. 168-170. Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India. Submit a Record. "Submit a Record". Archived from the original on 13 May 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2014.retrieved 13-05-2014
^ Hoon Vineeta (1997). "Coral Reefs of India: Review of Their Extent, Condition, Research and Management Status". FAO, Regional Workshop on the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ Patterson J.K.
^ UNDP (January 2001). "Project Document – Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve's Coastal Biodiversity" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme, Global Environment Facility. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2007. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
^ Edward J. K Patterson, Mathews Edward G., Patterson Jamilla, Wilhelmsson Dan, Tamelander Jerjer, Linden Olaf (April 2007) Coral Reefs of The Gulf of Mannar, Southeastern India-Distribution, Diversity and Status, special Research Publication # 12, Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute, J.K. Patterson Edward, Director, 44 Beach Road, Tuticorn, Tamil Nadu, 628001 India [www.sdmri.org]
^ Venkataswaran Dr. V (January 2000) Status Survey of Gulf of Mannar Coral Reefs, Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, 100 San Thome High Road, Chennai, India, 600028
^ V.K.Venkataramani and N. Jayakumar (2007). "Biodiversity and biology of marine ornamental reef fishes of Gulf of Mannar – parrotfishes (family: scaridae)" (PDF). Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Thoothukudi. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 14 October 2007.
^ "Gulf of Mannar isle splits in two, may sink". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2013.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Protected area of India}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
 {{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
 {{Infobox protected area
-| name = Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
+ | name              = Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
-| alt_name =
+ | alt_name          =
-| iucn_category = II
+ | iucn_category     = II
-| photo = Dugong.jpg
+ | photo             = Dugong.jpg
-| photo_alt =
+ | photo_alt         =
-| photo_caption = [[Dugong]], a [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] [[marine mammal]]
+ | photo_caption     = [[Dugong]], a [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] [[marine mammal]]
-| photo_width =
+ | photo_width       =
-| map = India Tamil Nadu
+ | map               = India Tamil Nadu#India
-| map_alt =
+ | map_alt           =
-| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
+ | map_caption       = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
-| map_width =
+ | map_width         =
+ | label             = Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
-| location = Coastal regions of [[Thoothukkudi]] and [[Ramanathapuram District]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
+ | location          = Coastal regions of [[Thoothukkudi]] and [[Ramanathapuram District]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
-| nearest_city = Rameswaram
+ | nearest_city      = Rameswaram
-| coordinates = {{coords|9.127823|79.466155|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
+ | coordinates       = {{coord|09|08|15|N|79|28|21|E|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
-| area_km2 = 560
+ | area_km2          = 560
-| established = 1986
+ | established       = 1986
-| visitation_num =
-| visitation_year =
+ | visitation_num    =
+ | visitation_year   =
-| governing_body = [http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/br_gmmnp.html Tamil Nadu Ministry of Environment and Forests]
+ | governing_body    = [http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/br_gmmnp.html Tamil Nadu Ministry of Environment and Forests]
-| world_heritage_site =
+ | world_heritage_site =
-| url =
+ | url               = http://forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_gmmnp.html
 }}
-The '''Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park''' is a [[Protected areas of India|protected area of India]] consisting of 21 small islands ([[islet]]s) and adjacent [[coral reef]]s in the [[Gulf of Mannar]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]. It lies 1 to 10&nbsp;km away from the east coast of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[South India]] for 160&nbsp;km between [[Thoothukudi]] (Tuticorin) and [[Dhanushkodi]]. It is the core area of the [[Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve#Conservation|Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve]] which includes a 10&nbsp;km buffer zone around the park, including the populated coastal area.<ref name=UNDP1>{{cite web|url=http://data.undp.org.in/factsheets/ene/oct06/GulfofMannar.pdf |title=Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve’s Coastal Biodiversity |accessdate=2007-10-15 |author=UNDP |year=1994 |publisher=UNDP, Project Brief, New York |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180802/http://data.undp.org.in/factsheets/ene/oct06/GulfofMannar.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-21 |df= }}</ref> The park has a high [[Biodiversity|diversity]] of plants and animals in its [[Marine (ocean)|marine]], [[Intertidal zone|intertidal]] and near [[shore]] [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]]. Public access inside the Park is limited to glass bottom boat rides.<ref name= GMBRT1>{{cite web |url= http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_gmmnp.html|title= Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park - Tamil Nadu Forest Dept. (GOMNP)|accessdate=2007-10-15 |author= Shaunak B Modi|year= 2011|publisher= Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust}}</ref>
+The '''Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park''' is a [[Protected areas of India|protected area of India]] consisting of 21 small islands ([[islet]]s) and adjacent [[coral reef]]s in the [[Gulf of Mannar]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]. It lies 1 to 10&nbsp;km away from the east coast of [[Tamil Nadu]], India for 160&nbsp;km between [[Thoothukudi]] (Tuticorin) and [[Dhanushkodi]]. It is the core area of the [[Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve#Conservation|Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve]] which includes a 10&nbsp;km buffer zone around the park, including the populated coastal area.<ref name=UNDP1>{{cite web|url=http://data.undp.org.in/factsheets/ene/oct06/GulfofMannar.pdf |title=Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve's Coastal Biodiversity |access-date=2007-10-15 |author= UNDP |year=1994 |publisher= UNDP, Project Brief, New York |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180802/http://data.undp.org.in/factsheets/ene/oct06/GulfofMannar.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref> The park has a high [[Biodiversity|diversity]] of plants and animals in its [[Marine (ocean)|marine]], [[Intertidal zone|intertidal]] and near [[shore]] [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]]. Public access inside the park is limited to [[glass-bottom boat]] rides.<ref name=GMBRT1>{{cite web|url= http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_gmmnp.html|title= Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park - Tamil Nadu Forest Dept. (GOMNP)|access-date= 2007-10-15|author= Shaunak B Modi|year= 2011|publisher= Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071102053914/http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_gmmnp.html|archive-date= 2 November 2007|df= dmy-all}}</ref> It was established as a National Park in 1986.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Coastal ecosystems : environmental importance, current challenges and conservation measures |publisher=Springer International Publishing |year=2021 |isbn= |editor-last=Madhav |editor-first=Sughosh |location=Cham, Switzerland |pages=15 |oclc= |editor-last2=Nazneen |editor-first2=Sadaf |editor-last3=Singh |editor-first3=Pardeep}}</ref>
 ==Geography==
-The {{convert|560|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} park is part of the 140&nbsp;km long and 25&nbsp;km wide Mannar [[Apron reef|barrier reef]]. It lies between 8° 47’ to 9° 15’ N latitude and 78° 12’ to 79° 14’ E longitude. The  21 islands vary from 0.25 ha (.6 acre) to 130  ha. (321.2 acres). Total area of the islands is {{convert|6.23|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} <ref name=UNDPPR061/>  {{cbignore|bot=medic}}
+The {{convert|560|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} park is part of the 140&nbsp;km long and 25&nbsp;km wide Mannar [[Apron reef|barrier reef]]. It lies between 8° 47' to 9° 15' N latitude and 78° 12' to 79° 14' E longitude. The 21 islands vary from {{convert|0.25|ha|acre|abbr=off}} to 130 ha. (321.2 acres). The total area of the islands is {{convert|6.23|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=UNDPPR061/> {{cbignore|bot=medic}}
 The islands (listed southwest to northeast)
-'''[[Thoothukudi|Tuticorin]] group: (4 islands)'''<br />Vaan, 16.0 ha <ref name="Anna1" /> {{coord|8.83639|N|78.21047|E}}<br />Koswari, 19.50 ha {{coord|8.86879|N|78.22506|E}}<br />Vilanguchalli, 0.95 ha {{coord|8.93815|N|78.26969|E}}, now 1 m below mean low tide level as a  result of excessive coral mining.<br />Kariyachalli, 16.46 ha {{coord|8.95409|N|78.25235|E}}
+'''[[Thoothukudi|Tuticorin]] group: (4 islands)'''<br />Vaan, 16.0 ha <ref name="Anna1" /> {{coord|8.83639|N|78.21047|E}}<br />Koswari, 19.50 ha {{coord|8.86879|N|78.22506|E}}<br />Vilanguchalli, 0.95 ha {{coord|8.93815|N|78.26969|E}}, now 1 m below mean low tide level as a result of excessive coral mining.<br />Kariyachalli, 16.46 ha {{coord|8.95409|N|78.25235|E}}
 '''[[Vembar]] group: (3 islands)'''<br />
@@ Line 47: / Line 49: @@
 Mulli, 10.20 ha, elevation 1.2 m {{coord|9.18641|N|78.96810|E}}
 [[File:AMS-Gulf of Mannar (SW).jpg|thumb|115px|'''Topographic Map''' (SW)]]
-'''[[Mandapam]] group:(4 islands)'''<br />
+'''[[Mandapam]] group:(7 islands)'''<br />
 Musal, 124.00 ha, elevation 0.9 m {{coord|9.19912|N|79.07530|E}} (recently populated)<br />
 Manoli, 25.90 ha {{coord|9.21564|N|79.12834|E}}<br />
@@ Line 53: / Line 55: @@
 Poomarichan 16.58 ha {{coord|9.24538|N|79.17993|E}}<br />
 Pullivasal, 29.95 ha {{coord|9.23699|N|79.19100|E}}<br />
-Kurusadai, 65.80 ha {{coord|9.24690|N|79.20945|E}} was recently populated.<ref name=PATTERSON1/> Its surrounding shallow waters harbour three species of seagrass that are found nowhere else in India. Representatives of every animal phylum known (except amphibians) are found on this island.<ref name=OSTI1>{{cite web|url=http://www.niot.res.in/m5/mbic/osti/newsletters/newsletter/july2004.pdf |title=Focus on an Island |accessdate=2007-10-15 |author=OSTI staff |date=July 2004 |work=Ocean Science and Technology for Islands Newsletter, Vol 2.3 Issue 5, p.2 |publisher=National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai |format=PDF }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><br />
+Kurusadai, 65.80 ha {{coord|9.24690|N|79.20945|E}} was recently populated.<ref name=PATTERSON1/> Its surrounding shallow waters harbour three species of seagrass that are found nowhere else in India. Representatives of every animal phylum known (except amphibians) are found on this island.<ref name=OSTI1>{{cite web|url=http://www.niot.res.in/m5/mbic/osti/newsletters/newsletter/july2004.pdf |title=Focus on an Island |access-date=2007-10-15 |author=OSTI staff |date=July 2004 |work=Ocean Science and Technology for Islands Newsletter, Vol 2.3 Issue 5, p.2 |publisher=National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><br />
 Shingle, 12.69 ha, elevation .6m {{coord|9.24174|N|79.23563|E}}
-Tidal amplitude in the area is about .5m.<ref name=Anna1>{{cite web |url= http://iomenvis.nic.in/gulf%20of%20mannar.htm|title=Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve: |accessdate= 2007-10-15|author= IOM|year= 2007|work= Ecologically Important Areas of Tamil Nadu Coast|publisher= Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University}}</ref>
+Tidal amplitude in the area is about .5m.<ref name=Anna1>{{cite web|url= http://iomenvis.nic.in/gulf%20of%20mannar.htm|title= Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve|access-date= 2007-10-15|author= IOM|year= 2007|work= Ecologically Important Areas of Tamil Nadu Coast|publisher= Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080106075053/http://iomenvis.nic.in/gulf%20of%20mannar.htm|archive-date= 6 January 2008|df= dmy-all}}</ref>
 There were two more islands named Pandayan and Punnaiyadi at {{coord|8.78075|N|78.19536|E}} that were destroyed for construction of the new [[Thoothukudi#Port|Tuticorn Port]] facilities.
-==Flora and fauna==
+==Flora==
-[[File:Avicennia germinans.jpg|thumb|235px||'''[[Avicennia|Mangroves]]''']]
+[[File:Avicennia germinans.jpg|thumb|235px|'''[[Avicennia|Mangroves]]''']]
 [[File:Dugong_Marsa_Alam.jpg|thumb|right|Dugong with tropical fish]]
+The park includes marine components such as [[coral reef]]s, [[seaweed]] communities, [[sea grass]]es, and [[mangrove]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2019-01-18 |title=Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, India |url=https://en.unesco.org/biosphere/aspac/gulf-mannar |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref>
-[[File:Hawaii turtle 2.JPG|thumb|235px|'''[[Green turtle]]]]
-[[File:Common clownfish.jpg|thumb|235px|'''[[Clownfish]]''']]
-The park includes [[Estuary|estuaries]], [[mudflat]]s, [[beach]]es and [[forest]]s of the near shore environment. It also includes marine components such as [[coral reef]]s, [[seaweed]] communities, [[sea grass]]es, [[salt marsh]]es and [[mangrove]]s. [http://gombrtrust.org/seaweeds.htm Seaweed photo gallery]
-'''Flora''' – Mangroves dominate the intertidal zones of the park islands. They consist of species belonging to the [[Rhizophora]], [[Avicennia]], [[Bruguiera]], [[Ceriops]] and [[Lumnitzera]] genus.<ref name=TFD1/> Mangroves: [http://gombrtrust.org/mangroves.htm photo gallery]. Introduced [[Prosopis]] genus of tree species are dominant on land in all the islands. [[Pemphis acidula]] ([[Lythraceae]] family of flowering herb) is the only endemic plant species.<ref name=Jeganathan1>{{cite web |url= http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/ars/2006/stalin.htm|title= Vegetation status in the offshore islands of Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Tamil Nadu|accessdate=2007-10-15 |author=Jeganathan Stalin|year= 2007|publisher=Wildlife Institute of India}}</ref> 12 species of sea grass and 147 species of seaweeds were recorded. This vegetation provides important feeding grounds for the [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] [[marine mammal]], the [[Dugong]],<ref name=PATTERSON1>{{cite web |url= http://sdmri.org/reports/CORDIO%20%20Report%202005%20-%20Reef%20status%20in%20Tuticorin%20coast.pdf|title= Status of Coral Reefs of the Tuticorin Coast, Gulf of Mannar, Southeast Coast of India|accessdate=2007-10-15 |author1=J. K. Patterson Edward |author2=Jamila Patterson |author3=G. Mathews |author4=Dan Wilhelmsson |publisher= Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute|format=PDF}}</ref> [[endangered]] [[Green turtle]]s and [[Olive Ridley turtle]]s.<ref name=ICRS1>{{cite web|url=http://envfor.nic.in/icrmn/events/stcri00.html |title=Status of Coral Reefs of India |accessdate=2007-10-15 |author1=E.V. Muley |author2=J.R.B. Alfred |author3=K. Venkataraman |author4=M.V.M. Wafar |year=2000 |publisher=9 ICRS, BALI |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410115205/http://envfor.nic.in/icrmn/events/stcri00.html |archivedate=2009-04-10 |df= }}</ref> Sea grasses: [http://gombrtrust.org/seagrass.htm photo gallery]
+Mangroves dominate the intertidal zones of the park islands. They consist of species of the genera ''[[Rhizophora]]'', ''[[Avicennia]]'', ''[[Bruguiera]]'', ''[[Ceriops]]'' and ''[[Lumnitzera]]''.<ref name=TFD1/> The introduced tree genus ''[[Prosopis]]'' is dominant on land in all the islands. The flowering herb ''[[Pemphis acidula]]'' (family [[Lythraceae]]) is the only endemic plant species.<ref name=Jeganathan1>{{cite web|url= http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/ars/2006/stalin.htm |title= Vegetation status in the offshore islands of Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Tamil Nadu |access-date= 2007-10-15|author= Jeganathan Stalin|year= 2007|publisher= Wildlife Institute of India|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721162643/http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/ars/2006/stalin.htm|archive-date= 21 July 2011|df= dmy-all}}</ref> 12 species of sea grass and 147 species of seaweeds were recorded. This vegetation provides important feeding grounds for vulnerable marine mammals such as the [[dugong]],<ref name=PATTERSON1>{{cite web |url=http://sdmri.org/reports/CORDIO%20%20Report%202005%20-%20Reef%20status%20in%20Tuticorin%20coast.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116064613/http://sdmri.org/reports/CORDIO%20%20Report%202005%20-%20Reef%20status%20in%20Tuticorin%20coast.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2022 |title=Status of Coral Reefs of the Tuticorin Coast, Gulf of Mannar, Southeast Coast of India |access-date=2007-10-15 |author1=J. K. Patterson Edward |author2=Jamila Patterson |author3=G. Mathews |author4=Dan Wilhelmsson |publisher=Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute}}</ref> [[endangered]] [[green turtle]]s and [[olive ridley turtle]]s.<ref name=ICRS1>{{cite web|url=http://envfor.nic.in/icrmn/events/stcri00.html |title=Status of Coral Reefs of India |access-date=2007-10-15 |author1=E.V. Muley |author2=J.R.B. Alfred |author3=K. Venkataraman |author4=M.V.M. Wafar |year=2000 |publisher=9 ICRS, BALI |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410115205/http://envfor.nic.in/icrmn/events/stcri00.html |archive-date=2009-04-10}}</ref>
-'''Fauna'''
+== Fauna ==
 '''Vertebrates'''
-Dugong, a [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] [[marine mammal]] is the flagship mammal of the park. It is an important habitat for the [[Cetacean]]s: [[Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin#Taxonomy|Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin]], [[Finless porpoise]], [[Spinner dolphin]],<ref>Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. http://www.tuticorincity.info/plan-your-tour/Gulf-of-Mannar-Marine-National-Park.html. [[Tuticorin City]]. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> [[Common dolphin]],<ref name=Wells1>{{cite web |url= http://www.cetaceanhabitat.org/find_mpa1.php|title= Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park|accessdate=2007-10-15 |author= Wells|year= 1995|work=Cetacean habitat directory for MPAs, national and international sanctuaries  |publisher= Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society}}</ref> [[Risso's dolphin]], [[Melon-headed whale]], and [[Dwarf sperm whale]].<ref>Active Asia Travel. http://www.hotelsatmaldives.com/Whales.html. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> Larger whales include [[Sperm whale]],<ref>Accounts of Whale Watching in Sri Lanka. http://www.jetwingeco.com/content/accounts-whale-watching-sri-lanka. Jetwing Eco Holidays. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> [[Minke whale]], [[Bryde's whale]],<ref>Balaenoptera edeni. http://www.marinemammals.in/marine-mammals-of-india/cetacea/mysticeti/balaenopteridae/brydes-whale.  Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> [[Sei whale]],<ref>Kasim H.M., Balasubramanian S.T., 1989. On the stranding of Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis along Gulf of Mannar coast. Marine Fisheries Information Service, Technical and Extension Series, 95 . pp. 12-14. Eprints@CMFRI. http://eprints.cmfri.org.in/3068/. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> and critically endangered species including [[Humpback whale]], [[Fin whale]],<ref>Miller M., Scott A., Gulf of Mannar. http://www.psu.edu/dept/nkbiology/India/Gulf_of_Mannar.pdf. Biosphere Reserve Project. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> and [[Blue whale]].<ref>Marichamy R., Rajapandian M.E., Srinivasan A., 1984. The stranding of rorqual whale Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus) in the Gulf of Mannar. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India. 26. 168-170. Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India. Submit a Record. http://www.marinemammals.in/database/sightings-a-strandings/details/2/258. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref>
+The [[dugong]], a [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]] [[marine mammal]], is the flagship mammal of the park. It is an important habitat for the [[cetacean]]s: [[Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin#Taxonomy|Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin]], [[finless porpoise]], [[spinner dolphin]],<ref>Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. http://www.tuticorincity.info/plan-your-tour/Gulf-of-Mannar-Marine-National-Park.html. [[Tuticorin City]]. retrieved 13-05-2014</ref> [[common dolphin]],<ref name=Wells1>{{cite web |url= http://www.cetaceanhabitat.org/find_mpa1.php |title= Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park |access-date=2007-10-15 |author= Wells|year= 1995|work=Cetacean habitat directory for MPAs, national and international sanctuaries |publisher=Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society}}</ref> [[Risso's dolphin]], [[melon-headed whale]], and [[dwarf sperm whale]].<ref>Active Asia Travel. http://www.hotelsatmaldives.com/Whales.html {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20140513073001/http://www.hotelsatmaldives.com/Whales.html |date=13 May 2014}} retrieved 13-05-2014</ref> Larger whales include [[sperm whale]],<ref>Accounts of Whale Watching in Sri Lanka. http://www.jetwingeco.com/content/accounts-whale-watching-sri-lanka. Jetwing Eco Holidays. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> [[minke whale]], [[Bryde's whale]],<ref>Balaenoptera edeni. {{cite web |url=http://www.marinemammals.in/marine-mammals-of-india/cetacea/mysticeti/balaenopteridae/brydes-whale |title=Bryde's Whale |access-date=2014-05-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513222959/http://www.marinemammals.in/marine-mammals-of-india/cetacea/mysticeti/balaenopteridae/brydes-whale |archive-date=13 May 2014 |df=dmy-all}}. Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India. retrieved 13-05-2014</ref> [[sei whale]],<ref>Kasim H.M., Balasubramanian S.T., 1989. On the stranding of Sei whale ''Balaenoptera borealis'' along Gulf of Mannar coast. Marine Fisheries Information Service, Technical and Extension Series, 95. pp. 12-14. Eprints@CMFRI. http://eprints.cmfri.org.in/3068/. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> and critically endangered species including [[humpback whale]], [[fin whale]],<ref>Miller M., Scott A., Gulf of Mannar. http://www.psu.edu/dept/nkbiology/India/Gulf_of_Mannar.pdf. Biosphere Reserve Project. retrieved on 13-05-2014</ref> and [[blue whale]].<ref>Marichamy R., Rajapandian M.E., Srinivasan A., 1984. The stranding of rorqual whale ''Balaenoptera musculus'' (Linnaeus) in the Gulf of Mannar. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India. 26. 168-170. Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India. Submit a Record. {{cite web |url=http://www.marinemammals.in/database/sightings-a-strandings/details/2/258 |title=Submit a Record |access-date=2014-05-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513224727/http://www.marinemammals.in/database/sightings-a-strandings/details/2/258 |archive-date=13 May 2014 |df=dmy-all}}retrieved 13-05-2014</ref>
-About 510 (23%) of the 2,200 fin fish species in Indian waters are found in the Gulf, making it the most highly diverse fish habitat in India. Coral associated ornamental fishes belonging to the family Chaetodontidae,  ([[butterfly fish]]); [[Parrotfish]]; [[Amphiprion]] spp ([[clown fish]]), [[Holocentrus]] spp (squirrel fish), Scarus spp ([[parrot fish]]), Lutjanus spp (snappers) and Abudefduf saxatilis ([[sergeant Major]]) are abundant.<ref name=Hoon1>{{cite web |url= http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5627E/x5627e06.htm|title= Coral Reefs of India: Review of Their Extent, Condition, Research and Management Status|accessdate= 2007-10-15|author= Hoon Vineeta|year= 1997|publisher= FAO, Regional Workshop on the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs}}</ref>
+About 510 (23%) of the 2,200 fin fish species in Indian waters are found in the Gulf, making it the most highly diverse fish habitat in India. Coral associated ornamental fishes of the family Chaetodontidae ([[butterfly fish]]), [[parrotfish]], ''[[Amphiprion]]'' spp. ([[clown fish]]), ''[[Holocentrus]]'' spp. (squirrel fish), ''Scarus'' spp. ([[parrot fish]]), ''Lutjanus'' spp. (snappers) and ''Abudefduf saxatilis'' ([[sergeant major]]) are abundant.<ref name=Hoon1>{{cite web |url= http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5627E/x5627e06.htm|title= Coral Reefs of India: Review of Their Extent, Condition, Research and Management Status|access-date= 2007-10-15|author= Hoon Vineeta|year= 1997|publisher= FAO, Regional Workshop on the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs}}</ref>
 A unique endemic species of [[Balanoglossus]] – [[Ptychodera|Ptychodera fluva]], a living fossil that links invertebrates and vertebrates, has been recorded only at Kurusadai.<ref name= OSTI1/>
@@ Line 81: / Line 81: @@
 '''Invertebrates'''
-Four species each of [[shrimp]] and [[lobster]], 106 species of [[crab]], 17 species of [[Holothuroidea|sea cucumber]],  and 466 species of [[mollusc]] including 271 [[gastropod]]s, 174 [[bivalve]]s, 5 [[polyplacophoran]]s, 16 [[cephalopod]]s and 5 [[scaphopod]]s,<ref>Patterson J.K.</ref>  108 species of [[sponge]], and 100 species of [[echinoderm]] occur in the Gulf.<ref name=UNDP20011>{{cite web|url=http://www.gefweb.org/Documents/Project_Proposals_for_Endorsem/PP_Archives/INDIA_Mannar.pdf |title=Project Document – ''Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve’s Coastal Biodiversity'' |accessdate=2007-10-15 |author=UNDP |date=January 2001 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme, Global Environment Facility |format=PDF |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715165835/http://www.gefweb.org/Documents/Project_Proposals_for_Endorsem/PP_Archives/INDIA_Mannar.pdf |archivedate=2007-07-15 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref>
+Four species each of [[shrimp]] and [[lobster]], 106 species of [[crab]], 17 species of [[Holothuroidea|sea cucumber]], and 466 species of [[mollusc]] including 271 [[gastropod]]s, 174 [[bivalve]]s, 5 [[polyplacophoran]]s, 16 [[cephalopod]]s and 5 [[scaphopod]]s,<ref>Patterson J.K.</ref>  108 species of [[sponge]], and 100 species of [[echinoderm]] occur in the Gulf.<ref name=UNDP20011>{{cite web|url=http://www.gefweb.org/Documents/Project_Proposals_for_Endorsem/PP_Archives/INDIA_Mannar.pdf |title=Project Document – ''Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve's Coastal Biodiversity'' |access-date=2007-10-15 |author=UNDP |date=January 2001 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme, Global Environment Facility |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715165835/http://www.gefweb.org/Documents/Project_Proposals_for_Endorsem/PP_Archives/INDIA_Mannar.pdf |archive-date=2007-07-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-The coral fauna includes 106 species from 30 genus of [[hermatypes]] and 11 species from 10 genus of [[ahermatypes]], including 13 new species, giving a total of 117 species from 14 families and 40 genus. The reefs in this area are narrow [[fringing reef]]s located 150 to 300 m. from the shore of the islands and [[Apron reef|patch reef]]s rising up from depths of 2 to 9 m. and extending up to 2&nbsp;km. long and 50 m. wide. Large areas of these reefs are in generally poor condition due to destructive human activities of the 150,000 persons living along the coast. Nutrient and other pollution loads are high due to agriculture, deforestation, industry, urbanization and septic pollution. It appears that the Coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park seem to be healthy and in good condition, despite high rates of sedimentation and other threats.<ref>Edward J. K Patterson, Mathews Edward G., Patterson Jamilla, Wilhelmsson Dan, Tamelander Jerjer, Linden Olaf  (April 2007) Coral Reefs of The Gulf of Mannar, Southeastern India-Distribution, Diversity and Status, special Research Publication # 12, Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute, J.K. Patterson Edward, Director, 44 Beach Road, Tuticorn, Tamil Nadu, 628001 India [www.sdmri.org]</ref> However, live coral cover is only about 35%. Various algae cover much of the dead coral.<ref>Venkataswaran Dr. V  (January 2000)  Status Survey of Gulf of Mannar Coral Reefs, Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, 100 San Thome High Road, Chennai, India, 600028</ref>
+The coral fauna includes 106 species from 30 genus of [[hermatypes]] and 11 species from 10 genus of [[ahermatypes]], including 13 new species, giving a total of 117 species from 14 families and 40 genus. The reefs in this area are narrow [[fringing reef]]s located 150 to 300 m. from the shore of the islands and [[Apron reef|patch reef]]s rising up from depths of 2 to 9 m. and extending up to 2&nbsp;km. long and 50 m. wide. Large areas of these reefs are in generally poor condition due to destructive human activities of the 150,000 persons living along the coast. Nutrient and other pollution loads are high due to agriculture, deforestation, industry, urbanization and septic pollution. It appears that the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park seem to be healthy and in good condition, despite high rates of sedimentation and other threats.<ref>Edward J. K Patterson, Mathews Edward G., Patterson Jamilla, Wilhelmsson Dan, Tamelander Jerjer, Linden Olaf  (April 2007) Coral Reefs of The Gulf of Mannar, Southeastern India-Distribution, Diversity and Status, special Research Publication # 12, Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute, J.K. Patterson Edward, Director, 44 Beach Road, Tuticorn, Tamil Nadu, 628001 India [www.sdmri.org]</ref> However, live coral cover is only about 35%. Various algae cover much of the dead coral.<ref>Venkataswaran Dr. V  (January 2000)  Status Survey of Gulf of Mannar Coral Reefs, Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, 100 San Thome High Road, Chennai, India, 600028</ref>
-[[Scleractinia|Stony coral]] species belonging to [[Poritidae]] and [[Faviidae]] sub orders constitute the dominant reef builders here. Coral reefs near some of the islands have been heavily damaged by exploitation as raw materials for industrial ventures such as cement industries, brick manufacture, masonry work and lime kilns. Though legal quarrying of the reefs is now stopped, up to 250 m<sup>3</sup>/day of reef were destroyed for many years.<ref name=TFD1>{{cite web |url= http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/br_gmmnp.html|title= Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park|accessdate=2007-10-14 |year= 2007|work= Ecologically Important Areas of Tamil Nadu Coast|publisher= [[Tamil Nadu Forest Department]]}}</ref>
+[[Scleractinia|Stony coral]] species of families [[Poritidae]] and [[Faviidae]] constitute the dominant reef builders here. Coral reefs near some of the islands have been heavily damaged by exploitation as raw materials for industrial ventures such as cement industries, brick manufacture, masonry work and lime kilns. Though legal quarrying of the reefs is now stopped, up to 250 m<sup>3</sup>/day of reef were destroyed for many years.<ref name=TFD1>{{cite web|url= http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/br_gmmnp.html|title= Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park|access-date= 2007-10-14|year= 2007|work= Ecologically Important Areas of Tamil Nadu Coast|publisher= [[Tamil Nadu Forest Department]]|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071027062606/http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/br_gmmnp.html|archive-date= 27 October 2007|df= dmy-all}}</ref>
 ==Habitation==
 [[File:Fishing boats - GOMMNP.jpg|thumb|250px|Boats at [[Mandapam]] that fish in GOMMNP]]
-The islands are uninhabited except for Krusadai, Musal and Nallathanni islands where antipoaching sheds are operating.<ref name=Fishes1>{{cite web |url= http://www.nbaindia.org/docs/ncb_jan_06_11.pdf|title= Biodiversity and biology of marine ornamental reef fishes of Gulf of Mannar – parrotfishes (family: scaridae)|accessdate=2007-10-14 |author= V.K.Venkataramani and N. Jayakumar|year= 2007|publisher= Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Thoothukudi|format=PDF}}</ref> Along the coast near the park there are about 125 villages which support about 100,000 people who are mainly [[Marakeyar]]s, a local community principally engaged in fishing.<ref name=UNDPPR061>{{cite web |url= http://www.reefbase.org/gefll/pdf/Gulf%20of%20Mannar%20-%20APR%202006.pdf|title= Annual Project review, Conservation and sustainable use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve’s Coastal Biodiversity|accessdate=2007-10-16 |author= Undp gombr|date=October 2006|work= UNDP GEF APR/PIR 2006 – Biodiversity (1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006)|publisher= UNDP|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=TFD1/>
+The islands are uninhabited except for Krusadai, Musal and Nallathanni islands where antipoaching sheds are operating.<ref name=Fishes1>{{cite web|url= http://www.nbaindia.org/docs/ncb_jan_06_11.pdf|title= Biodiversity and biology of marine ornamental reef fishes of Gulf of Mannar – parrotfishes (family: scaridae)|access-date= 2007-10-14|author= V.K.Venkataramani and N. Jayakumar|year= 2007|publisher= Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Thoothukudi|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110727112913/http://www.nbaindia.org/docs/ncb_jan_06_11.pdf|archive-date= 27 July 2011|df= dmy-all}}</ref> Along the coast near the park there are about 125 villages which support about 100,000 people who are mainly [[Marakeyar]]s, a local community principally engaged in fishing.<ref name=UNDPPR061>{{cite web |url= http://www.reefbase.org/gefll/pdf/Gulf%20of%20Mannar%20-%20APR%202006.pdf|title= Annual Project review, Conservation and sustainable use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve's Coastal Biodiversity|access-date=2007-10-16 |author= Undp gombr|date=October 2006|work= UNDP GEF APR/PIR 2006 – Biodiversity (1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006)|publisher= UNDP}}</ref><ref name=TFD1/>
-==Habitat Degradation==
+==Habitat degradation==
-Experts say that Vaan Island, one of the four islands of the Tuticorn group, has split in two and if immediate efforts are not taken then the island would soon vanish under the sea. Vaan Island, which is the southernmost of the 21 islands in the Gulf of Mannar, was initially spread across 16 hectares, but had shrunk alarmingly by around 10.3 hectares to its current 5.7 hectares in less than three decades. According to J K Patterson Edward, director of Suganthi Devadasan Marine Research Institute (SDMRI), Tuticorin,"Rampant coral mining by people of the fishing villages along the coast is the main cause of the devastation to the island. Coral mining was banned in 2005, but the damage had already been done." Two of the 21 islands have already submerged around a decade ago.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gulf of Mannar isle splits in two, may sink|publisher=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-06-09/india/39849254_1_mannar-21-islands-gulf|accessdate=9 June 2013}}</ref>
+Experts say that Vaan Island, one of the four islands of the Tuticorn group, has split in two and if immediate efforts are not taken then the island would soon vanish under the sea. Vaan Island, which is the southernmost of the 21 islands in the Gulf of Mannar, was initially spread across 16 hectares, but had shrunk alarmingly by around 10.3 hectares to its current 5.7 hectares in less than three decades. According to J K Patterson Edward, director of Suganthi Devadasan Marine Research Institute (SDMRI), Tuticorin,"Rampant coral mining by people of the fishing villages along the coast is the main cause of the devastation to the island. Coral mining was banned in 2005, but the damage had already been done." Two of the 21 islands have already submerged around a decade ago.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gulf of Mannar isle splits in two, may sink|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-06-09/india/39849254_1_mannar-21-islands-gulf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612060214/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-06-09/india/39849254_1_mannar-21-islands-gulf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 June 2013|access-date=9 June 2013}}</ref>
-==Visitor information==
-Glass-bottomed boats available at Mandapam cater to tourists visiting the area. Access to the islands is prohibited. The nearest railway stations are at Mandapam and Tuticorin.
 ==See also==
 *[[Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education]]
 *[[Coral reefs in India]]
+*[[Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute]]
+*[[Fisheries College and Research Institute]]
 == References ==
@@ Line 105: / Line 104: @@
 ==Further reading==
-*Corals images gallery: [http://gombrtrust.org/corals.htm #1],[http://www.reefindia.org/coralpic.htm #2].
+*Corals images gallery: [https://web.archive.org/web/20100520020741/http://gombrtrust.org/corals.htm #1], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070814024113/http://www.reefindia.org/coralpic.htm #2].
 <!--unused resources for article expansion-->
+*Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Trust
-*GULF OF MANNAR BIOSPHERE TRUST
-**[http://trbaalu.nic.in/minister/speech/2000/dec1600a.html SPEECH OF THIRU. T.R. BAALU, HONORABLE UNION MINISTER OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA] [http://www.gombrt.org Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust, Ramanadapuram]
+**[https://web.archive.org/web/20071201212650/http://trbaalu.nic.in/minister/speech/2000/dec1600a.html Speech of Thiru. T.R. Baalu, Honorable Union Minister of Environment and Forests, Government of India] [https://web.archive.org/web/20180221043412/http://www.gombrt.org/ Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust, Ramanadapuram]
-*Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve’s Coastal Biodiversity, UNDP
+*Conservation and Sustainable-use of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve's Coastal Biodiversity, UNDP
-**[http://www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/India_1.doc Fact Sheet – October, 2006]
+**[https://web.archive.org/web/20070616221152/http://www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/India_1.doc Fact Sheet – October, 2006]
-**[http://data.undp.org.in/factsheets/ene/may07/GoMBRT.pdf Fact Sheet – May, 2007]
+**[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180806/http://data.undp.org.in/factsheets/ene/may07/GoMBRT.pdf Fact Sheet – May, 2007]
-*[http://www.sdmri.org/reports/Turtle.pdf  Sea turtles and their Conservation]
+*[http://www.sdmri.org/reports/Turtle.pdf Sea turtles and their Conservation]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080829121828/http://www.icsf.net/SU/Mon/EN/91/ALL.pdf Marine Protected Areas of India]
@@ Line 118: / Line 117: @@
 {{Protected areas of Tamil Nadu}}
 {{Waters of South Asia}}
+{{Ramsar sites in India}}
 [[Category:Gulf of Mannar]]
@@ Line 125: / Line 125: @@
 [[Category:Thoothukudi]]
 [[Category:Protected areas established in 1986]]
-[[Category:1986 establishments in India]]
+[[Category:1986 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
+[[Category:Ramsar sites in India]]

v t e National parks of India
Protected areas of India Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)
Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Campbell Bay Galathea Mahatma Gandhi Middle Button Island Mt. Harriet Island North Button Island Rani Jhansi Saddle Peak South Button Island
Andhra Pradesh	Sri Venkateswara Papikonda
Arunachal Pradesh	Mouling Namdapha
Assam	Dibru-Saikhowa Dehing Patkai Kaziranga Manas Nameri Orang Raimona
Bihar	Valmiki
Chhattisgarh	Indravati Kanger Ghati
Goa	Mollem
Gujarat	Blackbuck Gir Gulf of Kutch Vansda
Haryana	Kalesar Sultanpur
Himachal Pradesh	Great Himalayan Pin Valley Khirganga
Jammu & Kashmir	Dachigam Salim Ali National Park Kishtwar Overa-Aru Hirpora Hokersar
Laddakh	Hemis
Jharkhand	Betla
Karnataka	Anshi Bandipur Bannerghatta Kundremukh Nagarhole
Kerala	Anamudi Shola Eravikulam Mathikettan Shola Pampadam Shola Periyar Silent Valley
Madhya Pradesh	Bandhavgarh Fossil Kanha Kuno Madhav Panna Pench Sanjay Satpura Van Vihar
Maharashtra	Chandoli Gilbert Hill Gugamal Karnala Navegaon Pench Sanjay Gandhi Tadoba
Manipur	Keibul Lamjao Sirohi
Meghalaya	Balphakram Nokrek
Mizoram	Murlen Phawngpui
Nagaland	Intangki
Odisha	Bhitarkanika Simlipal
Rajasthan	Darrah Desert Keoladeo Ranthambhore Sariska
Sikkim	Khangchendzonga
Tamil Nadu	Guindy Gulf of Mannar Anamalai Mudumalai Mukurthi Palani Hills
Telangana	Kasu Brahmananda Reddy Mahavir Harina Vanasthali Mrugavani
Tripura	Clouded Leopard Rajbari
Uttar Pradesh	Dudhwa
Uttarakhand	Jim Corbett Gangotri Govind Pashu Vihar Nanda Devi Rajaji Valley of Flowers
West Bengal	Buxa Gorumara Neora Valley Singalila Sundarbans Jaldapara
Category

v t e Protected areas of Tamil Nadu
Biosphere reserves	Agasthyamalai Gulf of Mannar Nilgiris
National parks	Anamalai Grass Hills Guindy Gulf of Mannar Karian Shola Mudumalai Mukurthi
Wildlife sanctuaries	Anamalai Cauvery North Cauvery South Gangaikondan Grizzled Squirrel Kadavur Kalakkad Kanyakumari Megamalai Mudumalai Kodaikanal Mundanthurai Point Calimere Sathyamangalam Periyar Nellai Vallanadu
Bird sanctuaries	Chitrangudi Kallaperambur Kanjirankulam Karaivetti Karikili Kazhuveli Koothankulam Melaselvanur-Kilaselvanur Nanjarayan Point Calimere Pulicat Lake Suchindram Theroor Udayamarthandapuram Vaduvoor Vedanthangal Vellode Vettangudi Viralimalai
Tiger reserves	Anamalai Kalakkad Mundanthurai Mudumalai Sathyamangalam Megamalai
Elephant reserves	Agasthyamalai Anamalai Coimbatore Mudumalai Srivilliputhur
Conservation reserves	Tiruvidaimarudur
Protected areas of India

v t e Hydrography of the Indian subcontinent
Inland rivers	Bagmati Beas Betwa Bhagirathi Brahmaputra Chambal Chenab Damodar Godavari Gandaki Ganges Ghaghara Indus Jhelum Kali Kaveri Kosi Krishna Luni Mahanadi Mahananda Mahaweli Meghna Narmada Padma Ravi Sarasvati Sankosh Sharda Son Sutlej Tapti Yamuna
Inland lakes, deltas, etc.	Ganges Basin Ganges Delta Indus Delta Dal Lake Pookode Lake Skeleton Lake Chilika Lake Lake Powai Borith Lake Saiful Muluk Gosaikunda Nizam Sagar Red Hills Lake Malampuzha Kerala backwaters Pulicat Lake
Coastal	Indian Ocean Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal Gulf of Kutch Gulf of Khambhat Gulf of Mannar Laccadive Sea Palk Bay Palk Strait
Categories	Lakes of Bangladesh / India / Nepal / Pakistan / Sri Lanka Reservoirs and dams in India / Sri Lanka Rivers of Bangladesh / Bhutan / India / Nepal / Pakistan / Sri Lanka

v t e Ramsar sites in India
Andhra Pradesh	Kolleru Lake
Assam	Deepor Beel
Bihar	Kanwar Lake
Goa	Nanda Lake
Gujarat	Khijadiya Nalsarovar Thol Lake Wadhvana Wetland
Haryana	Sultanpur National Park Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary
Himachal Pradesh	Chandra Taal Pong Dam Lake Renuka Lake
Jammu and Kashmir	Hokera Wetland Hygam Wetland Shallbugh Wetland Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Wular Lake
Karnataka	Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary
Kerala	Ashtamudi Wetland Sasthamkotta Lake Vembanad-Kol Wetland
Ladakh	Tsomoriri Tso Kar
Madhya Pradesh	Bhoj Wetland Sakhya Sagar Sirpur Lake Yashwant Sagar
Maharashtra	Nandur Madhameshwar Lonar Lake Thane Creek
Manipur	Loktak Lake
Mizoram	Pala Wetland
Odisha	Anshupa Lake Bhitarkanika Mangroves Chilika Lake Hirakud Reservoir Satkosia Gorge Tampara Lake
Punjab	Beas Conservation Reserve Harike Wetland Kanjli Wetland Keshopur-Miani Community Reserve Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary Ropar Wetland
Rajasthan	Keoladeo National Park Sambhar Lake
Tamil Nadu	Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary Karikili Bird Sanctuary Koonthankulam Bird Sanctuary Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest Pichavaram Mangrove Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex Udayamarthandapuram Bird Sanctuary Vaduvur Bird Sanctuary Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Vellode Bird Sanctuary Vembannur Wetland Complex
Tripura	Rudrasagar Lake
Uttar Pradesh	Bakhira Sanctuary Haiderpur Wetland Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary Parvati Arga Bird Sanctuary Saman Bird Sanctuary Samaspur Bird Sanctuary Sandi Bird Sanctuary Sarsai Nawar Jheel Sur Sarovar Upper Ganga River
Uttarakhand	Asan Barrage
West Bengal	East Kolkata Wetlands Sundarban Wetland