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Asian Americans have made modest gains in politics, but still face discrimination. The first known Asian American participation in American politics was in the 1800s through coalition building.<ref name=CNLePolitics>Le, CN. Asian Nation. "Participating in Politics." 2007. January 29, 2007. [http://www.asian-nation.org/politics.shtml]</ref> This has resulted in their necessity to pan out greater social and monetary sums to attain office.<ref>Kwang Chung Kim "Korean Americans and the 'Success' Image: a Critique" Amerasia 10, 1983</ref> For example, Asian American politicians frequently must prove their allegiance to the United States.<ref name=CNLePolitics /> Notable exceptions include Hawaii{{fact}} Northern and Southern California which have large Asian American populations.<ref name=CNLePolitics />
Asian Americans have made modest gains in politics, but still face discrimination. The first known Asian American participation in American politics was in the 1800s through coalition building.<ref name=CNLePolitics>Le, CN. Asian Nation. "Participating in Politics." 2007. January 29, 2007. [http://www.asian-nation.org/politics.shtml]</ref> This has resulted in their necessity to pan out greater social and monetary sums to attain office.<ref>Kwang Chung Kim "Korean Americans and the 'Success' Image: a Critique" Amerasia 10, 1983</ref> For example, Asian American politicians frequently must prove their allegiance to the United States.<ref name=CNLePolitics /> Notable exceptions include Hawaii{{fact}} Northern and Southern California which have large Asian American populations.<ref name=CNLePolitics />


Asian Americans tend to not vote for a single party. Vietnamese Americans tend to vote Republican while Filipino Americans, Chinese Americans and Asian-Indian Americans vote Democratic. Since there is too few Asian Americans, recent immigrants tend not to vote and they don't vote for the same party, politicians have not tried to cater to their vote.<ref>Le, CN. Asian Nation. Asian Americans, Polls and the 2004 Elections. 2007 January 19, 2007. [http://www.asian-nation.org/2004-elections.shtml]</ref> To try to gain political clout, the 80-20 initiative is an organization that contacts Asian Americans to try to get them to vote for candidates who will try to removed institutional boundries blocking Asian Americans from equal corporate success.<ref>80-20 Initiative. 80-20 Explained. 2007. January 28, 2007. [http://www.80-20initiative.net/]</ref>
Asian Americans tend to not vote for a single party. Vietnamese Americans tend to vote Republican while Filipino Americans, Chinese Americans and Asian-Indian Americans vote Democratic. Since there is too few Asian Americans, recent immigrants tend not to vote and they don't vote for the same party, politicians have not tried to cater to their vote.<ref>Le, CN. Asian Nation. Asian Americans, Polls and the 2004 Elections. 2007 January 19, 2007. [http://www.asian-nation.org/2004-elections.shtml]</ref> To try to gain political clout, the 80-20 initiative is an organization that contacts Asian Americans to try to get them to vote for candidates who will try to removed institutional boundries blocking Asian Americans from equal corporate success.<ref name=80-20>80-20 Initiative. 80-20 Explained. 2007. January 28, 2007. [http://www.80-20initiative.net/]</ref>


===In sports===
===In sports===

Revision as of 02:47, 30 January 2007

Asian American
Eric Shinseki Elaine Chao Kalpana Chawla Antonio M. Taguba
Regions with significant populations
Alaska, Hawaii, West Coast, Northeast, Chicago
Languages
American English, Chinese, Tagalog, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Hindi, Indonesian, Urdu, Gujarati, others
Religion
Buddhism, Chinese folk religion, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Shamanism, Sikhism, Atheism, others
Related ethnic groups
Asians, East Asian American, South Asian American, and Southeast Asian American

An Asian American is generally defined as a person of Asian ancestry[2] who was born in or is an immigrant to the United States. The term Asian American was used informally by activists in the 1960s who sought an alternative to the term Oriental, arguing that the term was derogatory, colonialist, had the effect of distancing Asians from other Americans,[3] and was only "east" from the standpoint of Europe.[4] Formal usage was introduced by academics in the early 1970s, notably by historian Yuji Ichioka, who is credited with popularizing the term.[5] The term Asian American gradually replaced the term Oriental in American English between the periods of 1968 and 1975 as a new political identity.[6] During its formative period in the mid 1970s Asian Americans viewed a pan-ethnic identity with apprehension[7] The development of an Asian American identity through the process of ethnogenises in addition to an identity of a specific Asian ancestral group is most common in second generation and later Americans of Asian origin due to a shared Asian values and the perception of being a single racial group in the US.[8] The Asian American identity is less embraced first generation Asian immigrants separated by the language barrier.[6] In 1986, the first formal Asian American coalition was developed among Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans, Asian-Indian Americans, Filipino Americans, Korean Americans, Vietnamese Americans and Thai Americans.[9] Today, Asian American is the accepted term for most formal purposes, such as government and academic research,[10] although the term is often shortened to Asian in common usage.

As with other racial and ethnic groups, formal and common usage have changed markedly through the short history of this term. The most significant change occurred when the Hart-Celler Act of 1965 eliminated highly restrictive "national origins" quotas.[11] The new country-specific quotas enabled significant immigration from every country in Asia, which led to dramatic and ongoing changes in the Asian American population. As a result of these population changes, the formal and common understandings of what defines Asian American have expanded to include progressively more of the people with ancestry from various parts of Asia.[12] Today, Asian Americans have the highest educational attainment,[13] median household and median personal income of any racial demographic in the United States.[14][15]

Terminology

History

Template:BBC News World Divisions map Asian American is strongly associated with ethnic Chinese and Japanese people, since they were the first large groups of immigrants from Asia.[16] However, as immigration diversified from across Asia, the definition of Asian American has also changed.[12] In the United States, Asian frequently refers only to East Asia and Southeast Asia.[17] The Middle East, Siberia, and Central Asia are not typically included in definitions of Asian American.

Some ambiguity stems from variations in the use of the word American which can mean many concepts.[18] Immigration and citizenship status, acculturation, and language ability are some variables that are used to define American for various purposes and may vary in formal and everyday usage.[19] For example, some include only U.S. citizens conflicts with discussions of Asian American businesses, which generally refer both to citizens and non-citizens. In other cases, American refers to people either born, raised, or currently living in the U.S.A.

Template:Regions-Asia.png

Modern census

Since the first use of a separate "Asian" category in the 1990 Census, many government and research definitions have followed the Census groupings - even as the Census definitions have varied over time. The earlier US censuses only had the "Other" category for Asian Americans.[6] Census forms from 1980 and earlier listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups along with White and Black or Negro.[20] But the 1980 census marked the first general analyses of Asian Americans, combining several individual ancestry groups into "Asian or Pacific Islander."

By the 1990 census, Asian or Pacific Islander (API) was included as an explicit category, although respondents had to select one particular ancestry.[21][22] The 2000 census created a separate racial category for Americans of Pacific Islander ancestry. People with ancestry from Middle Eastern, Siberian, and former Soviet states remain categorized in the white racial category rather than Asian.[23]

Demographics

Current numbers

The 2000 U.S. census recorded 11.9 million people who reported themselves as having either full or partial Asian heritage, 4.2% of the U.S. population. The largest ethnic subgroups were Chinese (3.4 million), Filipinos (2.9M), Asian Indians (1.9M), Vietnamese (1.2M), Koreans (1.2M), and Japanese (1.1M). Other sizable groups are Cambodians (206,000), Pakistanis (204,000), Laotians (198,000), Hmong (186,000), and Thais (150,000).[24]

Geographic distribution

See also: List of U.S. cities with Asian American majority populations

Template:Asian American numbers in Metropolitan areas The Asian American population is heavily urbanized, with nearly three-quarters of Asian Americans living in metropolitan areas with population greater than 2.5 million. Asian Americans are concentrated in the largest U.S. cities, with most Asian Americans living in the metropolitan areas around Los Angeles, Honolulu, San Francisco, and New York City.[4] In fact, 66% percent of Asian Americans live California, New York, Hawai'i, Texas and Illinois.[25] Half of all Asian Americans (5.4M) live in Hawaii or the West Coast, mostly in California (4.2M). Census data shows that Asian American populations are developing in major metropolitan areas off of the West Coast, with visible communities in areas in and around Washington, D.C./Baltimore and Houston, to name the largest examples.

Asian American Distribution Maps
2000 density of Asian Americans
Asian Americans as percent of population, 2000

Asian Americans are visible and growing, but "underrepresented" (against the national aggregate) in several of the largest areas, including Chicago, Minneapolis/St. Paul, Philadelphia, and Boston, although sizable concentrations (double the national percentage) can be found in urban neighborhoods of these cities such as Albany Park in Chicago and Olney in Philadelphia. Additionally, similar Asian populations are found in suburbs of these cities such as Naperville near Chicago; Millbourne, King of Prussia, and Cherry Hill near Philadelphia; Lowell and Lexington near Boston.[citation needed] Asian American populations have experienced large growth in 2000 in the states Nevada, Arizona, and Colorado.[25]

Asian Americans tend to live in ethnic enclaves.[26] The first Asian American community was a Filipino town in Lousiana in the 1750s. Chinatowns became common in the mid-1800s in such locales as San Francisco, Hawai'i and Los Angeles.[26] Following recent immigration waves, however, "Koreatowns" and "Little Saigons" have appeared in several cities.[26] Large Japantowns once existed up and down the West Coast of the United States started around 1880s, but the ones that remain are mere vestiges of once vibrant pre-internment communities.[26]

Education

See also: Education outcomes in the United States by race and other classifications

Template:Asian American education Asian Americans have a greater degree of education than all other Americans with nearly a double percentage of their population with a college degree than the average American.[27] About 49% of Asian Americans have at least a bachelor's degree.[28] The large focus on education among Asian Americans is due to their cultural reference for learning, family values and bilingualism.[4] Asian American immigrants who are not fluent English speakers typically do poorly in school and have high dropout percentages.[29]

Income

Further information: Income in the United States

Asian Americans have household and personal income levels that exceed those of any other racial demographic, yet the Asian poverty rate is higher than for whites.[30] In 2005 the median personal income for Asian Americans was clocked at $36,152, compared to $33,030 for Whites, $27,101 for African Americans and $23,613 for those identifying as Hispanic or Latino. Asian Americans had the highest household income levels of any racial demographic with a median household income of $61,094, compared to $48,554 among White households. Additionally 28% of Asian American households had incomes exceeding $100,000, while only 18% of the overall population boasted such household incomes. The higher household income for Asian Americans is, however, somewhat offset by a larger household size, leading to the median income per household member being slightly lower for Asian American than for White American households.[31] As the differences between the personal income levels among Asian Americans and those of other races are smaller than the racial discrepancies in household income levels, it becomes apparent that Asian Americans have a higher percentage 2+ income earner households. Overall, the higher personal income levels are attributed mostly to higher educational attainment.

Type of income Median poverty less than $25k $25k-$50k $50k-$75k $75k-$100k $100k+
White
Persons $33,030 N/A 35.60% 35.20% 14.53% 6.89% 7.19%
Households $48,554 8.6% 24.87% 26.33% 18.87% 11.62% 18.31%
Asian Americans
Persons $36,152 N/A 33.52% 29.81% 18.10% 7.97% 10.60%
Households $61,094 10.1% 20.9% 19.33% 19.19% 13.08% 27.50%
Hispanic or Latino
Persons $23,613 N/A 49.35% 36.47% 8.99% 2.61% 2.58%
Households $35,967 18.3% 37.72% 29.67% 17.24% 6.60% 8.77%
African Americans
Persons $27,101 N/A 41.26% 36.99% 15.65% 3.54% 2.56%
Households $30,585 22.3% 43.05% 26.75% 15.14% 7.30% 7.76%

SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2006 Template:Asian American income by ethnic group

Asian American history

Further information: Category:Chinese American history, Category:Japanese American history, Category:Filipino American history, and Category:Indian American history

Early history

In 1763, Filipinos established the small settlement of Saint Malo in the bayous of current-day Louisiana, after fleeing mistreatment aboard Spanish ships. Since there were no Filipino women with them at the time, the Manilamen, as they were known, married Cajun women and Indians.[32] Two decades later, Chinese crewmen get stranded in Baltimore in 1785.[33]

In Hawaii, Chinese sailors came to Hawaii in 1778, the same year that Captain James Cook stumbled upon the island.[34] Many settled and intermarried with Hawaiian women. Some Island-born Chinese could be well into the 7th generation. A smaller proportion of Chinese, Korean and Japanese laborers were brought in during the 19th century to work on sugar plantations. Later, Filipinos were also brought in as laborers.

A large number of Chinese and Japanese began immigrating to the U.S. in the mid 19th century. Many of these Chinese immigrants worked as laborers on the transcontinental railroad in 1864 to 1869.[33] A surge in Asian immigration in the late 19th century caused some to fear the growing number of Asians. This fear was referred to as the "yellow peril."[35] Laws that were adopted in the United States included Asian Exclusion Act(1924), Chinese Exclusion Act (1943), etc.[33]

Effects of war

About fifty Chinese American participants in the American Civil War fought in the colored regiment. They were not given citizenship, voting rights, or access to public schools because they were legally declared "neither black nor white" in the Jim Crow South.[34]

During World War II, the United States government declared Japanese Americans a risk to national security and undertook the Japanese American Internment, authorized by President Franklin Roosevelt with United States Executive Order 9066.[36] This controversial action forced the relocation of approximately 112,000 to 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans, taking them from the west coast of the United States to hastily constructed War Relocation Centers in remote portions of the nation's interior. 62% of those forced to relocate were United States citizens. Starting in 1990, the government paid some reparations to the surviving internees.

Despite the internment, many Japanese American men served in World War II in the American forces. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team/100th Infantry Battalion, composed of Japanese Americans, is the most highly decorated unit in U.S. military history. The 442nd/100th fought valiantly in the European Theater even as many of their families remained in the detention camps stateside. The 100th was one of the first units to liberate the Nazi extermination camp at Dachau.[37]

Immigration trends

Template:Asian American immigration Immigration trends of recent decades have dramatically altered the statistical composition and popular understanding of who is an Asian American. This transformation of Asian America, and of America itself, is the result of legislation such as the McCarran-Walter Act of 1952[4] and the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965.[4] The McCarran-Walter Act repealed the "free white persons" restriction of the Naturalization Act of 1790, but it retained the quota system that effectively banned nearly all immigration from Asia (for example, its annual quota of Chinese was only fifty). Asian immigration increased significantly after the 1965 Immigration Act altered the quota system.[4] The preference for relatives, initially designed to reduce the number of Asian immigrants, eventually acted to accelerate their numbers.

After the enactment of the 1965 Immigration Act, Asian American demographics changed rapidly. This act replaced exclusionary immigration rules of the Chinese Exclusion Act and its successors, such as the 1924 Immigration Act, which effectively excluded "undesirable" immigrants, including Asians. The 1965 rules set across-the-board immigration quotas for each nation of 20,000 and allowed preferences for family members, opening the borders to sizeable immigration from Asia for the first time in nearly half a century.[4]

Immigration of Asian Americans were also affected by U.S. war involvement from the 1940s to the 1970s. In the wake of World War II, immigration preferences favored family reunification. This may have helped attract highly skilled workers to meet American workforce deficiencies. Another instance related to World War II was the Luce-Celler Act of 1946, which helped immigrants from India and the Philippines. The end of the Korean War and Vietnam War and the so-called "Secret Wars" in Southeast Asia brought a new wave of Asian American immigration, as people from Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia arrived. Some of the new immigrants were war brides, who were soon joined by their families. Others, like the Southeast Asians, were either highly skilled and educated, or part of subsequent waves of refugees seeking asylum. Some factors contributing to the growth of sub-groups such as South Asians and mainland Chinese were higher family sizes, higher use of family-reunification visas, and higher numbers of technically skilled workers entering on H-1 and H-1b visas.

After the 1980's, Filipino Americans, Chinese Americans, Korean Americans, Vietnamese Americans and Asian-Indian Americans have become some of the ancestry groups to increase most dramatically in the US.[4]

The adoption of orphans born in Asia is a large source of Asian Americans. As the birth rates of white Americans have decreased, there have been more adoption of Asian children by white American families. This process has been greatly eased by legislation in the 1970s and increased after the Vietnam War. Most of these adoptions are from China, the Philippines, Vietnam and India.[38]

Asian American cultural issues

Asians as a "model minority"

Main article: Model minority

Some refer to Asian Americans as a model minority because the Asian American culture contains a high work ethic, respect for elders and high valuation of family.[8] Assimilation analysts consider Asian Americans to be model minorities since their economic achievement is on par or above that of the dominant White American group. [39]Statistics such as household income and low incarceration rate[40] are also discussed as positive aspects of Asian Americans.[citation needed]

The model minority image may be negative for Asian Americans, according to Power-Conflict analysts. The model minority image often ignores the fact that many Asian immigrants arrived from the middle class with some capital and downplays racial discrimination against Asian Americans.[41] The model minority image ignores the fact that a disproportionate number of Asian Americans are poor[42] and results in the stereotype that all Asians are smart.[4] Asians are often envisioned as being "near white" or "whiter than whites" in this model minority stereotype,[43] establishing them in the United States' social contiuum somewhere between white to black hierarcy of social status.[44]

Assimilation

Asian Americans as a whole are characterized by high-assimilation and low retention of ancestral culture. This is particularly true of Japanese Americans and Chinese Americans who may be around 4th generation Americans. These Asian Americans hold a very strong Asian American identity and a weak ancestral identity[45] Given their large degree of assimilation, Asian Americans are considered "core Americans".[46] The special case of adopted Asian American into white American families greatly increases assimilation, although these adoptee parents may emphasize their adopted children have knowledge of Asian culture.[38] Some Asian American groups retain a high identity with their parent cultures. Filipino Americans and Asian-Indian Americans retain a high ethnic identity but also assimilate into mainstream culture. In particular, Asian-Indian Americans are considered strongly bicultural, retaining their cultural heritage along with their American one.[47] On the other end of the spectrum, Korean Americans and Vietnamese Americans are characterized as having a strong ethnic identity and low assimilation values. These two groups typically form friendship and marry only people of their individual ethnicity.[46] Vietnamese Americans and Hmong Americans typically come to the US with less economic resources which makes it harder for them to assimilate into American society.[48] Due to their low-assimilation and high ethnic identity, Korean Americans and Vietnamese Americans may identify themselves as having Asian pride more than other Asian American groups.

Asian Americans today

See also: List of notable Asian Americans

Template:Asian American occupational distribution

In government

Asian Americans have made modest gains in politics, but still face discrimination. The first known Asian American participation in American politics was in the 1800s through coalition building.[49] This has resulted in their necessity to pan out greater social and monetary sums to attain office.[50] For example, Asian American politicians frequently must prove their allegiance to the United States.[49] Notable exceptions include Hawaii[citation needed] Northern and Southern California which have large Asian American populations.[49]

Asian Americans tend to not vote for a single party. Vietnamese Americans tend to vote Republican while Filipino Americans, Chinese Americans and Asian-Indian Americans vote Democratic. Since there is too few Asian Americans, recent immigrants tend not to vote and they don't vote for the same party, politicians have not tried to cater to their vote.[51] To try to gain political clout, the 80-20 initiative is an organization that contacts Asian Americans to try to get them to vote for candidates who will try to removed institutional boundries blocking Asian Americans from equal corporate success.[52]

In sports

See also: Category:Asian American sportspeople
File:Kwan michelle.jpg
Michelle Kwan competes her second long program at the 2002 Grand Prix Final in Kitchener, Ontario

There are few professional Asian American sports stars. Whereas other minority groups such as Latinos and African Americans have looked upon sports as a way to advance socially, Asian Americans have not looked upon sports this way.[53] Asian Americans first made an impact in Olympic sports in the late 1940s and in the 1950s. Korean American Sammy Lee became the first Asian American to earn an Olympic Gold Medal, winning in platform diving in both 1948 and 1952. Other Asian Americans have achieved prominance in their particular sport in the late 19th century such as figure skater Michelle Kwan and tennis player Michael Chang.

In film media

Asian Americans have been involved in the entertainment industry since the first half of the 19th century, when Chang and Eng Bunker (the original "Siamese Twins") became naturalized citizens.[34] Nevertheless, significant progress by Asian Americans in the fields of television, cinema, and comedy has been slow. Early Asian American actors Anna May Wong and Bruce Lee encountered a movie-making culture that wanted to typecast them as caricatures. As a result, the San Francisco born Lee achieved world-wide fame only after first abandoning the West and finding success in Hong Kong. George Takei (of Star Trek fame) and Pat Morita (Happy Days) fared somewhat better domestically, playing secondary roles on the small screen during the 1960s and 1970s. While Asian American men currently win few leading roles in movies or television, Asian American women have much better opportunities in the entertainment industry today. Asian American jazz was a music genre pioneered by Asian Americans while current Asian American musical endeavors can be found on MTV.[citation needed] Asian American writing frequently has growing up as an Asian American as a central theme.[54]

In science and technology

Asian Americans have made notable contributions to science and technology with accolades in physics and biology.

In business

In 2002, Asian American businesses amount to an over 1.1 million. Asian owned business employ more than 2.2 million persons and earn more than $326 billion in business revenues. Asian firms also account for 5% of nonfarm businesses, 2.0 percent of employment and 1.4 percent of receipts in the United States. Asian firms are highest in terms of revenues, employment, and receipts in the United States compared to their Hispanic and African American counterparts.[55][56][57]

Asian Americans have had their degree of financial success which hampered by discrimination. When Asians were largely excluded from labor markets in the 19th century, they started their own businesses. In the 20th century, Asian Americans still make less than their expected earning for their educational status due to discrimination.[58] Compared to their population base, Asian Americans today are well represented in the professional sector and tend to earn higher wages, especially in technology and business. [59] However, many Asian American managers and executives report a glass ceiling on their advancement.[29]

See also

References

  1. ^ US Census Bureau, "Asian alone or in combination in 2005". Retrieved 2006-11-22.
  2. ^ Ohio State University. Diversity Dictionary. 2006. September 30, 2006. [1].
  3. ^ Lee, Leaya. Journalism at NYU. Oriental: Rugs or People? 2005. January 19, 2006. [2].
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Feagin, Joe R. Racial and Ethnic Relations. New Jersey. Prentice Hall:2003.
  5. ^ Asian American Studies Center. UCLA Professor Yuji Ichioka Creator of Asian America. 2002. January 28, 2006.[3]
  6. ^ a b c Lee, Gordon. Hyphen Magazine. "The Forgotten Revolution." 2003. January 28, 2007.[4]
  7. ^ Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity. pp. 50-51
  8. ^ a b Nazli Kibria, "The Construction of 'Asian American': Reflections on Intermarriage and ethnic identity among Second-Generation Chinese and Korean Americans, " Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20 (July 1997) 523-544
  9. ^ Sweeney, "Asian Americans Gain Clout," American Demographics 8 1986 pp. 18-19
  10. ^ University of Texas at Dallas. Diversities and Sensitivities. 2006. January 28, 2007. [5]
  11. ^ Center for Immigration Studies. Three Decades of Mass Immigration The Legacy of the 1965 Immigration Act. 1995. January 28, 2007. [6]
  12. ^ a b Lee, Sharon M. "Asian Americans Diverse and Growing." Population Bulletin Vol. 53, no. 2, June 1998. Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau. Accessed December 8, 2006.
  13. ^ "US Census Bureau report on educational attainment in the United States, 2003" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-18.
  14. ^ "Percent Distribution of Households, by Selected Characteristics Within Income Quintile and Top 5 Percent in 2004". Retrieved 2006-12-17.
  15. ^ "US Census Bureau, Personal income for Asian Americans, age 25+, 2006". Retrieved 2006-12-17.
  16. ^ "Asian-American History." Fact Monster. © 2000–2006 Pearson Education, publishing as Fact Monster. 20 Jan. 2007 [7].
  17. ^ Lee, Sharon M. Population Reference Bureau. Asian Americans Diverse and Growing. 2006. September 10 2006. [8]
  18. ^ LaBarca, Peter. The Ornery American. "Who is a real American?" 2003. January 28, 2007. [9]
  19. ^ Wood, Daniel B. Common Ground on Whose an American. Christian Science Monitor. 2006. January 19, 2006. [10].
  20. ^ 1980 Census: Instructions to Respondents, republished by Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, Minnesota Population Center, University of Minnesota at www.ipums.org Accessed 19 Nov 2006.
  21. ^ 1990 Census: Instructions to Respondents, republished by Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, Minnesota Population Center, University of Minnesota at www.ipums.org Accessed 19 Nov 2006.
  22. ^ Reeves, Terrance Claudett, Bennett. United States Census Bureau. Asian and Pacific Islander Population: March 2002. 2003. September 30, 2006. [11].
  23. ^ U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of Population, Public Law 94-171 Redistricting Data File.Race Retrieved September 18, 2006
  24. ^ Brittingham, Angela. Ancestry 2000:Census Brief. 2004. October 30, 2006. [12]
  25. ^ a b Le, CN. Asian Nation. "Population Statistics and Demographics." 2007. January 28, 2007.
  26. ^ a b c d Le, CN. Asian Nation. "Ethnic Communities and Enclaves." 2007. January 28, 2007. [13]
  27. ^ U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population:Social and Economic Characteristics:United States Summary, pp.44, 107-108
  28. ^ Bauman, Kurt J. Census 2000 Brief. "Educational Attainment:2000." 2003. January 28, 2007. [14]
  29. ^ a b US Commission on Civil Rights. Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s, pp. 68-99
  30. ^ US Census Bureau publication p60-231 "Income, Poverty and Health Insurance in the United States: 2005" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-18.
  31. ^ US Census Bureau, "Asians and Pacific Islanders Have Nation's Highest Median Household Income in 1997, Census Bureau Reports". Retrieved 2006-12-18..
  32. ^ http://www.filipinoamericans.net/manilamen.shtml
  33. ^ a b c Leung, George. University of Massachusetts Dartmoth. Timeline of Asian Immigration. 1989. January 28, 2007. [15]
  34. ^ a b c Asian American Artistry. US-Asians. "Asian-Pacific American Timeline." 2006. January 28, 2007. [16]
  35. ^ Lyman, Stanford M. Model Minority. The 'Chinese Question' and American Labor Historians. 2000. January 28, 2007. [17]
  36. ^ Our Documents. Transcript of Executive Order 9066: Resulting in the Relocation of Japanese (1942). January 28, 2007. 2007. [18]
  37. ^ Le, CN. Asian Nation. "442nd: Rescue of the Lost Battalion."2007. January 28, 2007.[19]
  38. ^ a b Le, CN. Asian Nation. Adopted Asians. 2007. January 28, 2007. [20]
  39. ^ Takaki, Ronald. "Is Race Surmountable? Thomas Sowell's Celebration of Japanese-American 'Success,'" in Ethnicity and the Work Force, ed. Winston A. Van Horne (Madison:University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), pp. 218-220
  40. ^ Bureau of Justice Statistics: Criminal Offenders Statistics, 2005-11-13[21]
  41. ^ B. Suzuki, "Education and the Socialization of Asian Americans," in Asian Americans:Social and Psychological Perspectives, ed. R. Endo, S. Sue. amd M/ Wagmer (Palo Alto, CA:Science & Behavior Books, 1980), 2:155-178
  42. ^ Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture, p. 188, 189.
  43. ^ Okihiro, Gary Y. "Is Yellow Black or White?" in Asian Americans: Experiences and Perspectives, ed. Fong and Shinagawa, p. 75
  44. ^ Feagin, Racist America:Roots, Current Realities, and Further Reparations, chapter 7
  45. ^ Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 473.
  46. ^ a b Kitano and Daniels, Asian Americans:Emerging Minorities, 3rd ed., p. 80.
  47. ^ Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," pp. 32-38
  48. ^ Zhou, Min. "Growing Up American:The Challenge Confronting Immigrant Children and the Children of Immigrants." Annual Review of Sociology. 1997. p.63-95
  49. ^ a b c Le, CN. Asian Nation. "Participating in Politics." 2007. January 29, 2007. [22]
  50. ^ Kwang Chung Kim "Korean Americans and the 'Success' Image: a Critique" Amerasia 10, 1983
  51. ^ Le, CN. Asian Nation. Asian Americans, Polls and the 2004 Elections. 2007 January 19, 2007. [23]
  52. ^ 80-20 Initiative. 80-20 Explained. 2007. January 28, 2007. [24]
  53. ^ Lapchick, Richard. ESPN. Asian Sports Stars and Athletes. 2007. January 28, 2007.[25]
  54. ^ Le, CN. Asian Nation. Writers, Artists and Entertainers. 2007. January 28, 2007. [26]
  55. ^ "US Census Bureau, Asian Summary of Findings". Retrieved 2006-12-17.
  56. ^ "US Census Bureau, Hispanic Owned Firms". Retrieved 2006-12-18.
  57. ^ "US Census Bureau, Black Owned Firms". Retrieved 2006-12-18.
  58. ^ Garza, Melita Marie. Chigaco Tribune. Asians Feel Bias Build on Perceptions. 1997.
  59. ^ "Broad racial disparities persist". Retrieved 2006-12-18.

External links

Further reading

Books

  • Helen Zia Asian American Dreams: The Emergence of an American People New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2000. ISBN 0-374-52736-9.
  • Pyong Gap Min Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues Thousand Oaks, Ca.: Pine Science Press, 2005. ISBN 1-4129-0556-7
  • Frank H. Wu Yellow: Race in American Beyond Black and White New York: Basic Books, 2002. ISBN 0-465-00639-6
  • Ronald Takaki Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans New York: Little, Brown, 1998. ISBN 0-316-83130-1

Journal

  • Journal of Asian American Studies


Template:Race in the 2000 U.S. Census

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