Bush food
As Bush Food (bush food), and Bush Tucker called in is Australia using only native plants and animals designated as for the traditional cuisine of the Aborigines is typical, but also for the pioneering days of British colonization. Some of the ingredients in this diet can be found in modern Australian cuisine today .
Aboriginal diet
The Aboriginal diet was nutritious and varied. They had an encyclopedic knowledge of animals and plants in their environment and their seasonal change. The prevailing idea that in pre-colonial times they roamed the continent in need for something to eat is unsustainable. Each clan lived in a well-defined area and had a knowledge of the resources of its own territory and only limited knowledge of the surrounding land. Only in the course of British colonization did the indigenous population find themselves in need, suffered from hunger and lack of drinking water and was threatened with extinction. Aborigines also influenced the vegetation in their tribal areas through targeted and controlled bush fires in which they started small fires in delimited areas and thereby controlled nature to a limited extent. They knew that the land would produce less growth if it was not continuously burned down.
They knew the life cycle of marine and land animals, which they also differentiated according to whether they served as food or as totem animals . The habitats in which they live and lived ranged from the subtropical rainforest to the tropical coast, from the bushland to the desert, from temperate climates to the snow-capped mountains. They used the food and remedies that their environment produced depending on the region. This knowledge was not used by the European colonists, so that many of them died of thirst next to springs or fell sick under seed-bearing trees and next to edible plants - for example from scurvy - and starved to death because they did not know their way around. The colonists loathed the food habits of the indigenous population and were therefore not given any insight into their knowledge and experience. Only hesitantly did they try out the local food supply. Since there was neither agriculture nor cattle breeding in Australia and Tasmania before the European conquest and no domestic animals except for the dingo , a domestic dog, the natives of Australia were all hunters and gatherers . Hunting and gathering was tradition and formed the connection to the land. The tools they needed for hunting and gathering were made from local rocks, woods or plants. Hardwood was used for boomerangs and fishing nets were woven from plants. If animals were killed that one clan could not eat alone, other clans were invited to eat.
In the course of colonization by the Europeans, the Aborigines were not only displaced, but also robbed of their livelihoods, their previous water and food sources decreased or dried up completely due to the extensive cultivation of the new settlers. They had to adapt their diet to the colonists and some of them left their tribal areas. It was not until the 1980s that a change began, which was also due to the fact that Aborigines were increasingly returning to their local ancestral areas. At the same time, there was a worldwide movement that was returning to the use of locally grown food. The Northern Territory's Ministry of Health, for example, reacted with bush nutrition programs and the University of Sydney examined food samples for vitamins , trace elements , protein and fat content. In the 1990s, the macadamia nut was the only Bush food product that was able to achieve national significance. By 2009 the number had risen to eleven national products. In 2019, of the 6,500 edible plants in Australia, 13 Bush Food plants were certified according to the Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) for national and international trade. On the other hand, the range of Bush Foods in Australian online retail, in food markets and restaurants has also increased significantly.
Aquatic animals
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Fish were one of the most important sources of protein for the Aborigines; they were hunted with spears both on the coast and inland. The widespread fish are barramundis , mullets , catfish , sharks , barracudas , sawfish , napoleon fish , snapper ( Lethinus nebulosus ), grouper , female fish , mackerel , sardines , bream , mackerel and half- beaked pike . They were fished with nets, spears, the spears were used with two to six points at the tip and a light shaft, depending on the purpose. Canoe spears, however, only had one sharpened and hardened point. An Aboriginal tribe was an exception because they fish with an aquaculture . It was the Gunditjmara who set up an elaborate system of aquaculture around Lake Condah around 8,000 years ago using stone dams to hold back the water in these areas in the swamps, where they raised eels and other fish. Here the women caught the fish in baskets.
Often the fish were driven into natural or man-made pools and fences, or speared with spears or caught with nets in shallow water; if this was not possible, canoes were used. Diving and underwater spears were also practiced when the water was clear enough. Larger fish, such as jacks, were gutted and - lying on their backs - fried on or between hot charcoal. Barramundis were placed on charcoal either directly or wrapped in the bark of myrtle heather . Barrmundis wrapped in bark have also been included in the menu in gourmet restaurants since the 1990s. Very large fish, on the other hand, were also cooked slowly in earth ovens . In contrast, very small fish were simply placed on the coal or in hot ashes. Collected freshwater clams were opened on the spot and eaten raw.
Dugongs were hunted with either nets or spears. Whales were not hunted, but used as prey when they were stranded. Like the dugongs, sea turtles were hunted and their eggs collected. When the turtle eggs are cooked, the yolk becomes firm and the egg white becomes liquid; they were also eaten raw. Large turtles were prepared by cutting their throats on the hard breast plate, removing their entrails, liver, and any fat. The Aborigines placed stones and lumps of clay on a large fire, which were then placed in the abdominal cavity after they had been heated. The opening on the turtle's neck was closed with djila leaves, which gave the meat a special touch. The turtle was placed vertically in the sand and the meat inside cooked for two hours. The liver, offal and eggs removed beforehand were eaten during the cooking process.
Clams were also cooked on the edge of a fire and taken in as soon as the contents began to foam to prevent the shellfish from becoming overcooked or tough. Cone snails were placed in the fire with the opening facing upwards and removed as soon as the snail shell was very hot. Crayfish were collected at certain times of the year and placed on the fires immediately after being caught on their shell and eaten after they turned orange. That the Aboriginal tribes on the coast ate a high proportion of mussels and oysters; can still be detected today on countless clamshell mounds on the coast of Australia, which usually reached a height of about two meters, a cluster even reached a height of 16 meters.
Wildlife
Almost all animals were hunted and eaten in Australia, these were mainly kangaroos , wallabies , mountain kangaroos , emus , dingoes , lizards , beaked hedgehogs , bandicoots , wombats , spotted martens , possums , fruit bats , pouches and also birds such as bush chickens , cockatoos , owls , Wedge-tailed eagles , strangler crows , crows , ducks and also snakes. For the Aborigines, hunting is associated with their traditions and dream time . The killing, cooking and distributing of the hunted meat are connected with the rules that the creation beings dictate. The men were solely responsible for hunting larger wild animals such as emus, wombats and kangaroos; The preparation of large animals was also a matter for men. For example, the fur of a killed kangaroo was first singed in the flames and then placed in the fire. If the animal's body was swollen in the flames, it was removed, eviscerated and the remains of the fur scraped off with sharp tools. Only when enough hot charcoal and ash had formed at the appropriate temperature was the body put back in, turned after 20 minutes and cooked until it was cooked. Large animals such as wallabies are cooked using the same method, but in large areas the meat remains raw and bloody; but is heated. This meat, which is only partially cooked, is considered a delicacy. Animals were also steamed in earth ovens in various Aboriginal tribes. The pits were about 90 cm long and 60 cm wide, in which fire was kindled. Lumps of clay were placed in the burning wood, which were red-hot removed with pliers, then the pit was swept out and lined with green leaves or grass. Small game such as possums were covered with green grass and clumps of clay were placed on top. After this process, the pit was filled with the excavated earth and the meat inside was steamed. Meat and vegetables pickled in bark were also steamed in the pits.
Small animals such as lizards (called Goannas ), lizards , turtles , snakes or larvae of insects were either passant en captured or systematically sought by women and children. These little animals were almost always cooked in hot ashes.
The Aborigines also hunted waterfowl such as geese, ducks, ibises , brolga cranes, and pelicans near billabongs and swamps. In southeast Australia, nets were stretched over the billabongs, the waterfowl were startled and they got caught in the nets. Boomerangs were thrown into flocks of birds that either stunned or killed individual birds. The big birds like ibiss, brolga crane and pelican were cooked in earth ovens.
Insects and maggots
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Another source of protein that the Aborigines consumed with great pleasure were edible insects and maggots . It is widely believed that the Aborigines only ate insects and maggots as emergency food. This is by no means the case, as many of them were primarily consumed with great pleasure. Witchetty maggots , which are even sold in some supermarkets, were and are popular . The large maggots, which can be up to 10 cm long and 2 cm thick, are located in the surface roots of the Witchetty Bush ( Acacia kempeana ) and were previously dug up with grave sticks and removed from the roots, today this is done with crowbars. They taste like almonds, have a crispy skin after they have been removed from the ashes, the inside is then firm and pale yellow. Other caterpillars that were white, fat, and edible were previously eaten in Victoria, Tasmania, and Queensland. They should also taste like witchetty maggots.
The Aborigines who lived in Southeast Australia collected Bogong butterflies , which come by the millions to eat. Once caught, they were either eaten raw or rolled in hot ashes, sifted in a mesh bag so that the wings and heads were severed. After that, there was only a small piece of meat left, the size of a grain of wheat and pleasantly sweet and tasting like walnuts.
In order to survive drought, the honeydew ants collect honeydew and nectar from aphids and leaf fleas and feed them to other workers. The bloated and helpless workers live in underground tunnels. Women in central Australia collect these honey ants by digging deep, as the tunnels reach a depth of 1.8 to 2.4 meters.
Crop use
The plants shown below are just a selection of the edible plants that the indigenous people of Australia use and have used. In addition, emphasis was placed on the importance, use and different preparation.
fruit
Hundreds of types of fruit grow on Australian trees, bushes and climbing plants, which are edible and brought a change in the diet of the Aborigines. However, only a small number of them can be described as sweet and tasty, as is known in Europe through the consumption of mango, annas and papaya. The aromas of the fruits are rather bitter, tart and have a high acid content. The immigrant Europeans often gave them names such as apple, peach, plum or cherry because of their color or shape, although they do not belong to these types. In Southeast Australia in particular, numerous fruits are suitable for making jams, jellies and summer drinks. Regionally heavily used plants were and are: in the north of Queensland especially Parinari nonda , in the desert areas Quandong ( Santalum acuminatum ) and in north-western Australia to the east of Arnhem Land the wild plum ( Terminalia ferdinandiana ).
The climbing plant Desert Banana ( Leichhardtia australis ), which is named after the German explorer Ludwig Leichhardt , grows in crevices on dry river beds in Spinifex areas. Your young pods and flowers are cooked raw, ripe pods either alone or with other vegetables. They taste like chewy zucchini with a light pumpkin and bean flavor.
- Australian bush tomato ( Solanum centrale )
plant
blossom
fruit
There are several species of Solanum such as the bush tomato ( Solanum centrale ) that grow in the Northern Territory as well as in the adjacent areas of South Australias and Western Australias . Ripe bush tomatoes are green, they are dried and rubbed together with water on a rubbing stone and then the brown, seed-containing mass is formed into small balls and dried. The Wild Desert Orange ( Capparis michelli ) grows in desert areas and provides sufficient vitamin C and thiamine . Figs were eaten by almost all Aborigines, for example the Desert Fig ( Ficus platyoda ), which grows in arid areas from Western Australia to New South Wales, produces fruits that turn red, brown and orange when ripe. They are eaten raw and are high in protein and fat. The noni tree or cheese fruit ( Morinda citrifolia ) is a fruit that grows in Arnhem Land and produces large white fruits. The white fruit smells and tastes like Roquefort cheese and is also used by the Aborigines for medicinal purposes. The coveted fruits of the Quandong or Native Peach ( Santalum acuminatum ) taste sweet, can be consumed immediately or dried and then stored. The oil-containing kernels can either be eaten raw or they are mashed and then serve as a cosmetic skin care product. The species of the genera Acmena and Syzygium form shrubs or trees that grow in East Gippsland and in the south of the Wilsons Promontory and on the edge of the rainforests and on the coast near Lismore . The berries taste a bit sour and are eaten raw.
Green vegetables
The Aborigines traditionally ate little green vegetables. Important vegetables were the tips and the hearts of different types of palm trees of the genus Archontophoenix and tree ferns , and also the stems, young shoots and shoot Kollen of sedges and rushes . The young shoots of peaks and typhaceae the Tyhra used the inhabitants of the marshlands in the south west of Australia and the Murray-Darling river system in New South Wales. The young plants of the Botany Bay Spinach ( Tetragonia tetragonoides ) were eaten raw by the Aborigines, but also cooked. This type of spinach was one of the few local plants that European passengers on the First Fleet ate. Fast growing purslane was harvested and the whole plants including leaves and stems were ground to a green pulp. Small balls were rolled out of it, which were immediately consumed. From Grass ( Xanthorrhoea in Victoria and New South Wales, the basal leaves and shoots are eaten raw), today the plant under protection. Tree ferns grow in Australia on watercourses and in rainforests, with the tip eaten raw as a salad or cooked. The Palm Heart ( Livistona benthamii ) is mainly harvested in Northern Australia, whereby the palm heart of palm trees is used from a certain height. There are other palm trees that are used as green vegetables. The so-called hypocotyls are used on the Cape York Peninsula , additional roots on mangrove trees that form during the tropical intertidal zones. The hypocotyls are washed up on the coast, where they are picked up and used as green vegetables. However, they can only be consumed after extensive pre-treatment, as they contain a lot of tannic acid that has to be flushed out. The hypocotyls are then baked and then freed from the skin in order to crush them to a pulp and soak them in water. To remove the water, the mass is passed through and cooked again.
Seeds
- Seeds
Nardoo
Damper
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Not only animals and fish, but also plants were cooked by the fires using charcoal by the Aborigines. For example, nardoo ( Marsilea drummondii ) is a plant that grows in either mud or water year-round in Australia, and produces small seed coats throughout the year. These were first fried and then ground into a coarse yellow flour that was sifted before adding water to form a batter that was baked on charcoal to make “Nardoo Cakes”. In 1861, explorers Burke and Wills ate - near starvation - on Nardoo, which was given to them by local Aborigines. You did not heat the plants in the required initial preparation process, so the enzyme thiaminase in the plant is not destroyed and vitamin B1 is broken down. It is therefore believed that because of this they died.
Damper is the name used by Aborigines and Europeans for bush bread that is baked on hot ashes. To bake this bread, the Aborigines in the center of the continent alone used around 45 wild seeds, for example seeds from mulga . The use of seeds and grinding was an ancient and important Aboriginal survival technique that dates back around 15,000 years. The European colonists brought flour, sugar and tea to Australia and traded them. As a result, Aboriginal, migrant, cattle and sheep herding bread was baked in the ashes of campfires in early Australia. In the meantime, this happens not only on campfires, but also on hot plates and in ovens.
Roots, bulbs and tubers
The roots of numerous plants were dug up, processed accordingly, eaten raw or cooked. Yams such as Long Yam ( Dioscorea transversa ) and Round Yam ( Dioscorea bulbifera ) play in Arnhem Land, in the central Australian deserts the tubers of Desert Jam ( Ipomoea costata ), Bush Potato ( Vigna lanecolata ) and Wild onions ( Cyperus bulbosa ) and im Southeast the tubers and sprouts of orchids play an important role in the nutrition of the indigenous people. The excavation is done by women. Small yams can be eaten raw, they are usually cooked. To cook yams, women dig a trench about 30 cm deep and adjust the length according to the number of roots. The trench is lined with hot charcoal, the tubers or roots are placed, removed after about 20 minutes of cooking and placed on leaves. The taste corresponds roughly to that of sweet potatoes. Plant sprouts are eaten either raw or prepared, depending on their degree of ripeness. The same applies to bulbs and onions. Bush carrots ( Abelmoschus moschatus ) are small pointed tubers that taste like carrots . They are usually cooked in the earth oven together with other vegetables. The small orchid bulbs are eaten in all Australian states. The tubers of Wild Arrowrot (Tacca Leontopetaloides) used to be widely eaten throughout the Top End of the Northern Territory, but are now rarely eaten. They require a long and special treatment because the starch first has to be pressed out of the tubers so that they can only be enjoyed when they no longer taste bitter.
The water chestnut ( Eleochari dulcis ) grows in the swamps of the north. The young bulbs are dug up in late May / early June. the young tubers can be eaten raw and the older tubers roasted. The onions and roots of water lilies ( Nymphaea ) from billabongs were roasted by the Aborigines before eating. The seed pods, which are located just below the surface of the water, can be consumed raw. The stems of the water lilies first had to be roasted before they could be chewed. In addition, an application of crushed leaves repels leeches. This food preparation is used by Aborigines living today in the same way.
nuts
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Nuts grow all over the Australian continent, for example ten edible nut varieties are common in Queensland and four in Arnhem Land. Many Australian types of nuts are slightly toxic, require complex and varied pretreatment, must be crushed and the resulting flour washed out. The Macrozamia palms growing in the southeast of Australia, the nuts of which are poisonous in their raw state, like the Cycas nuts of Cycas armstrongii that ripen in northwestern Australia, must be soaked before consumption.
The largest nuts are found in the Australian baobab tree ( Adansonia gregorii ), the size of emu eggs, which were eaten raw or dipped in water and sweetened with honey. The nuts of the Australian chestnut ( Castanosperum Australe ) must be soaked and crushed before they are eaten in order to shape them into cakes and then toast them. When dried, the nuts are used as rattles in dances and also as totems . The Bush Cashew Nut of Semecarpus australiensis is cooked between charcoal for 15 minutes before consumption and then broken open. The Queensland Araucaria ( Araucaria bidwillii ), also called Bunya Bunya Tree , grows up to 80 meters high and grows in the mountains in southeast Queensland to the north of New South Wales. The large cones of this tree contain numerous nuts that are eaten either raw or cooked. The harvests are extremely plentiful, so that in the past regular festivals were held with numerous Aborigines and Aboriginal tribes came from other regions. The Kurrajong trees ( Brachychiton ) grow in all parts of Australia. The cones ripen every year and bear innumerable nuts that are harvested either in a green or brown state. The green pods must first be cooked in hot ashes so that they can be removed. The pods are not eaten as they are indigestible and toxic.
The macadamia nuts were originally worked on specially made stones with fine notches to hold them in place. These nuts are now traded worldwide.
Sweet fabrics
Sweet nectar , honey, and edible gum were the primary sweets - alongside the fruits that the Aborigines enjoyed. Honey even entered her dreamtime as an ancestral being . It should only be eaten raw and in some regions was not allowed to be added to other dishes. The indigenous people went to great lengths to collect wild honey ( bush honey) or to simulate honey pot ants with digging sticks. There was no risk of collecting honey because it came from stingless bees.
Nectar was either sucked out by mouth from the flowers of Callistemon , Greville , Banksien and other trees and plants, or the flowers were collected to sweeten drinks. On the leaves of the diamond-shaped eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus viminalis ), insect injuries to the leaf surfaces result in small, rounded, white accumulations that were picked up and formed into lumps to be eaten as candy.
Edible sweet tree resins were made by carving notches in Erythophleum chlorostachyum (a myrtle family ), Acacia and Allocasuarina trees that grow across Australia. The resins also melted into jelly in warm water. Although Aboriginal people are known not to have consumed alcoholic beverages prior to colonization, there are reports of fermentation of nectar and gum resins into alcoholic beverages, which created euphoric moods in Aboriginal people prior to ceremonies.
Cattail plants (Thyra) grow in the warmer months in shallow waters that can grow up to 2.5 meters. In Victoria and New South Wales the sticky roots, which contain sugar and also starch and fibers, were harvested and roasted.
The flower spikes of the grass tree were soaked in water and enjoyed as a sweet drink.
chewing tobacco
Some Aboriginal tribes still refer to some plants as "native" tobacco. These are Pitubi ( Duboisia hopwoodii ), which contains strong nicotine and which used to be an important commodity. The grated plant is rolled into small balls with the ashes of acacia or eucalyptus and then chewed and has a very intoxicating effect. There are only a few plants of the species of Nicotiana that are either fresh or ground with the ashes of mulga (Acacia aneura) and are chewed and chewed. Enjoyment creates inner satisfaction, joy.
Herbal healing
The vast majority of the plants used by the Aborigines as bush remedies were based on traditional uses that had shown success. Healings and effective cures were recognized and knowledge about them was passed on. Most of the therapeutic applications were inhaled, rubbed in and in the form of antiseptics . There were remedies and plants that were used for inflammation, burns, wounds, ulcers, headaches, coughs, colds, constipation, diarrhea and toothache. Gynecology included its own applications and plants.
Bush tucker plants (selection)
Below is a selection of Bush Tuckers that grow primarily in the southern areas of Australia. These are fruits from trees and bushes, seeds, lettuce plants, spices, root vegetables, etc. The selection does not claim to be complete.
- Anise Myrtle ( Syzygium anisatum )
- Boobialla (myoporum insulare )
- Bower Spinach ( Tetragonia implexicoma )
- Bush banana ( Marsdenia australis )
- Coast Beard Heath ( Leucopogon parviflorus )
- Coast Wattle ( Acacia sophorae )
- Coastal Saltbush ( Atriplex semibaccata )
- Finger Lime ( Microcitrus australasica )
- Gray Mangrove ( Avicennia marina )
- Gray Saltbush ( Atriplex cinerea )
- Gubinge ( Terminalia ferdinandiana )
- Lemon Myrtle ( Backhousia citriodora )
- Marsh Cress ( Rorippa palustris )
- Midyim ( Austromyrtus dulcis )
- Muntries ( Kunzea pomifera )
- Nardoo ( Marsilea drummondii ),
- Native currant ( Carissa spinarum )
- Native White Elderberry ( Sambucus gaudichaudiana )
- Nitre Bush ( Nitraria Billardierei )
- Old Man Saltbush ( Atriplex nummularia )
- Pigface ( Carpobrotus )
- Quandong ( Santalum acuminatum )
- Riberry ( Syzygium luehmannii )
- Ruby Saltbush ( Enchylaena tomentosa )
- Samphire ( Tecticornia )
- Sea Blite ( Suaeda australis )
- Botany Bay Spinach ( Tetragonia tetragonoides )
- Water Ribbons ( Cycnogeton alcockiae )
Others
Animals and plants were not only used for food, but also for personal hygiene, recently even for perfume, medicine and oil production, and earlier to anesthetize the emus on the hunt.
The Aborigines extracted oils from animals to keep their skin soft and shiny. In Arnhem Land and on the Cape York Peninsula they used dugong oil and turtle oil for this purpose, and monitor lizard oil in the Australian deserts. These oils were spread over the entire body and also over the hair on the head.
Soaps were made from the leaves of plants such as the leaves of the climbing plant Passiflora foetida and Alphitonia Excelsa , a small tree.
Today (2020), for example, the leaves of various plants are used as perfumes such as those of Sandalwood Australia ( Santalum spicatum ) and White Cypress ( Callitris glaucophylla ). There are numerous other medical and household uses for the Australian plants.
The Dubiosia hopwoodii plant produced narcotic leaves that were thrown into water holes to numb drinking emus. Emus are very fast, aggressive and therefore difficult to hunt. If the emus moved away slowly and swaying as if drunk after they had consumed water, they could easily be shot. The water points remained poisonous until the next rain, but after that they can be used again as sources of drinking water.
Recent developments
In Australia, bush food refers to the use of native plants and animals only. The term had a negative connotation until around 1990 . Today the plants and the methods of preparation of the traditional Aboriginal cuisine are being rediscovered or modified. In gourmet restaurants and hotels, dishes, spices and sauces can be found on menus that go back to Aboriginal traditions. As the eating of traditional foods and plants is currently experiencing a renaissance, there is also a turn to Aboriginal knowledge. For example, Vic Cherikoff's company turns to the extraction of Australian plants and spices and markets them.
In 2019 it was reported that there are a total of around 6,500 edible plants in Australia and only 20 of them are traded on a large scale for a volume of 20 million Australian dollars . So far, however, only one percent of the Aborigines work in this industrial area of nutrition.
There are numerous examples of the use of Australian plants: In 2017, the macadamia nut was Bush Tucker's largest market with a sales volume of 2.9 billion US dollars . This market is forecast to grow to a volume of 4.5 billion US dollars by 2024. The seeds of the acacia Wattleseed are used as a spice and were previously baked into a seed cake ( bush bread ), the gubinge is powdered as a spice, Botany Bay spinach is a type of spinach that is also used as a homeopathic remedy, and Quandong is served as a fruit . Wild lime garnish dishes. Australian bush tea leaves not only help against thirst, but also with respiratory problems. The Australian bush plum is the plant that certainly contains the highest amount of vitamin C, 50 times more than oranges. These plants have long been known and used by the Aboriginal people. Today they are offered in upscale restaurants around the world. But supermarket chains also offer bush food in the middle price range for tourists under the term bush tucker and sell traditional spices and oils.
literature
- Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine. Translated from the English by Barbara Rusch. Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 .
- Gerhard Leitner: The Aborigines of Australia (= Beck'sche series 2389 knowledge ). Beck, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-406-50889-8 .
- Australian Government: Handbook Native Food (English).
See also
Web links
- Aboriginal Bush Tucker on indigenousaustralia.info
- Examples of bush tucker plants with usage indications
- Bush Tucker (video)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 43/44
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 13/14
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 22
- ↑ Episode 3: Food for Thought - Bush Foods In: Special Broadcasting Service from 2009
- ↑ Ruby Mitchell, Joshua Becker: Bush food industry booms, but only 1 per cent is produced by Indigenous people In: Australian Broadcasting Corporation of January 19, 2019
- ↑ Taste Australia . In: Taste Australia, undated
- ^ Bush Food Products . In: Bushfoodshop undated, accessed March 24, 2020
- ^ Sue White: The country turning riberry, emu and green ants into fine dining fare : In: CNBC Australia of March 10, 2020
- ^ Bush Food Products . In: Bushfoodshop undated, accessed March 24, 2020
- ↑ Aborigines may have farmed eels, built hut . In: Australian Broadcasting Corporation of March 13, 2013
- ↑ Bush Food . In: Ocher Restaurant, undated
- ↑ Bush Foods . In: Parksaustralia undated, accessed March 10, 2020
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 165/166
- ↑ a b Warwick Wright: Aboriginal Cooking Technique . In: Australian National Botanic Gardens from 2000
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 176
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 177
- ^ Aboriginal shell midden at Weipa . In: Virtual Reading Room from 1958
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 142
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 52
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 181 and 183
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 189/190
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 189/192
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 193/194
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 59-77
- ^ Nardoo . In: Undated Bush Tucker Recipes, accessed March 10, 2020
- ↑ Abbie Thomas: Nardoo, the desert fern . In: Australian Broadcasting Cooperation, March 8, 2008
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 107
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 116
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 91-101
- ↑ Waterlily . In: Undated Bush Tucker Recipes, accessed March 10, 2020
- ^ Anna Salleh: Way of the water lilies: Where science meets the billabong . In: Australian Broadcasting Corporation July 7, 2016
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 83-89
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 83-89
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 132-134
- ^ Warwick Wright Aboriginal Cooking Techniques . In: Australian National Botanic Gardens from 2000
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 138
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 105
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 124
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 215
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . Pp. 207-215
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 214
- ^ Sandalwood Essential Oil . In: Native Oils Australia, undated, accessed March 30, 2020
- ^ White Cypress Wood-Essential Oil . In: Native Oils Australia, undated, accessed March 30, 2020
- ^ Current Australian Origin Products . In: Native Oils Australia. In: Native Oils Australia, undated, accessed March 30, 2020
- ↑ Jennifer Isaacs: Bush Food. Aboriginal food and herbal medicine . Könnemann Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2000. ISBN 3-8290-2191-7 . P. 145
- ↑ www.cherikoff.net Information on cherikoff.net
- ↑ Isabella Higgins: Australian bush foods are all around us, but the industry is just 'waking up' . In: Australian Broadcasting Cooperation of April 5, 2019.
- ↑ Global Macadamia Market Will Reach USD 4.5 Billion By 2024: Zion Market Research . In: Globenewswire, July 11, 2018
- ↑ Botany Bay Spinach . In: Remedia Apotheke from March 11, 2020.
- ↑ Leitner: Die Aborigines Australiens , p. 109 ff.