Dominion of New England

Flag of New England (1686 - ca.1737)

Seal of the Dominion of New England

The Dominion of New England (or officially Dominion of New England in America , German  territory of New England in America ) existed as a political unit of the British overseas colonies from 1686 to 1689 in the North American region of New England . Politically, the structure was closely based on the centralized control of the viceroyalty of New Spain . The Dominion was not accepted by most of the colonists because the new circumstances deprived them of their traditional rights and resented the British Crown. Governor Edmund Andros tried to push through legal and structural changes, but most of the resolutions were not implemented. The Dominion was overthrown when news of James II's abdication reached the colonies. A major success was the introduction of the Church of England in Massachusetts , whose Puritan leaders had successfully prevented its establishment by then.

The Dominion consisted of a very large area between the Delaware River in the south and Penobscot Bay in the north, which included the present-day US states of Maine , New Hampshire , Vermont , Massachusetts, Rhode Island , Connecticut , New York and New Jersey . It was clearly too big to be administered by a single governor, but that has not changed. Governor Andros was extremely unpopular and was even viewed as a threat by most political groups. After news of the Glorious Revolution reached Boston in 1689 , it was known that James II - who had installed Andros as governor - had been overthrown , largely because of his close ties to the Roman Catholic Church . The anti-Catholic Puritans then imprisoned Andros and his senior officials during the 1689 Boston Uprising . In the wake of the Leisler's Rebellion in New York City , Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson was ousted, which led to an ethnic war between the long-established Dutch settlers and English newcomers.

After these events, the Dominion colonies returned to their original form of administration and territorial division, although some initially no longer had a charter . New charters were, however, after a short time by the ruling Wilhelm III. and Maria II. published.

history

Previous developments

In the first half of the 17th century, several British colonies were founded in North America and the West Indies , some of which differed conceptually from one another. Some - such as the Colony of Virginia - emerged as commercial projects, while others - including the Colony of Maryland and Massachusetts Bay Colony - were founded for religious reasons. The administration of the colonies also differed; Virginia became a crown colony , regardless of the entrepreneurial phase in which it was founded , while Massachusetts, like other colonies in New England, had a charter that gave it extensive freedom of administration. In contrast, for example, Maryland and Carolina colonies were administered by one or more owners.

After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, the English King Charles II was interested in streamlining the administration of the colonial areas and making it more efficient overall. He therefore began to put some of the colonies under his direct control. A major reason was the high administrative costs that individual colonies caused, and another was the regulation of trade. Therefore, in the 1660s, the English Parliament passed a series of laws, collectively known as Navigational Acts . These were rejected by some colonies, led by Massachusetts, because they had already established important trade routes not only with other English colonies, but also with other European countries and their colonies. The navigational files now defined some day-to-day operations in New England as illegal and turned virtually all merchants into smugglers unless they paid the new tariffs that significantly increased their transportation and shipping costs.

Some of the colonies in New England presented special problems for the king, the solution of which was seen, among other things, in the amalgamation of these colonies into a single administrative unit. The Plymouth Colony had never had a formal charter, and the New Haven Colony had accepted two of the signatories of the death sentence against Charles I , the father of the reigning king. The Maine area was being questioned by contending licensees and the Massachusetts colony, and New Hampshire had recently been established and was therefore very small. Massachusetts has also been run almost theocratically since its inception and was widely known for its intolerance of non-Puritans. This also included - and this was crucial for the Roman Catholic Charles II - supporters of the Church of England . Previous reform efforts by Charles II had failed, so that in 1683 steps were taken to cancel the charter of the colony, which was then formally implemented in 1684.

The real motivation for London to take this step was less to increase the efficiency of the administration than to ensure that the colonies served their original purpose and enriched England. England's need for colonies that produced agricultural products was met by the southern colonies producing tobacco, rice and indigo , but not further north, New England, for geological reasons. Due to the scarcity of resources, the New England settlers began building trade networks and soon competed successfully with English merchants. They also built workshops and factories that threatened England's lucrative colonial market with textiles, leather and iron goods. Therefore, the plan was drawn up to combine all northern colonies in order to dissuade the settlers there from production and trade.

Establishment of the Dominion

King James II

After the Massachusetts Charter was revoked, Charles II and the Board of Trade presented their plans for the unified administration of at least some of the colonies in New England. The new Dominion had the particular aim of regulating trade, improving religious freedom, reforming the practice of awarding land rights with regard to English practice, coordinating defense measures and consolidating the administration in fewer centers and thus making it leaner. The Dominion initially included the areas of Massachusetts Bay Colony , Plymouth Colony , the Province of New Hampshire , the Province of Maine and the then Narraganset County (now Washington County (Rhode Island) ).

Charles II had appointed Colonel Percy Kirke as administrator of the Dominion, but he died before this could be approved. James II approved the installation of Kirke in 1685, which, however, was heavily criticized for its role in the suppression of the Monmouth Rebellion . Therefore, his appointment as administrator was revoked. Because there were delays in drafting the appointment of his intended successor, Sir Edmund Andros , on October 8, 1685 Joseph Dudley was appointed acting president of the New England Council. His appointment implied that he should rule with a council of appointed members and without a representative legislature. The council members consisted of a political cross section of moderate personalities from the old colonial governments. Edward Randolph , who as an agent of the Crown had investigated affairs in New England, was also a member. Randolph has also been entrusted with a variety of other positions - including Secretary of the Dominion, customs collector and deputy postmaster .

Governors

Joseph Dudley

Governor Joseph Dudley

Dudley's deed of appointment arrived in Boston on May 14, 1686, and he formally commenced business in Massachusetts on May 25 of the same year. It didn't get off to a particularly happy start, however, as some colonial officials appointed as part of its council refused to serve. According to Edward Randolph, the Puritan officials "believed that God would never allow them to land again in this land, so they began in a most arbitrary manner to exercise their power on an unprecedented scale." The elections for colonial officers were also affected because many of them also refused to serve. Dudley then forcibly appointed many of them, preferring the politically moderate people who had already supported the royal wishes in the fight for the old charter.

Dudley was handicapped to a large extent by his inability to raise the Dominion's revenue. His appointment did not allow him to introduce new income laws, and the Massachusetts colonial government had already withdrawn all related laws in 1683 pending the loss of the charter. In addition, many refused to pay the few remaining taxes, arguing that the relevant regulations were passed by the old government and are therefore invalid. The attempts by Dudley and Randolph to introduce the Church of England into the Dominion failed largely due to a lack of financial resources.

Dudley and Randolph enforced the navigational files even though they did not fully comply with the law. Since both were aware that some of the rulings contained therein were unfair, for example because they resulted in the payment of multiple tariffs, certain violations of the new rules were ignored. They recommended that the Board of Trade modify the laws to accommodate this. The economy in Massachusetts was nevertheless severely affected - additionally affected by negative external influences. There was even an open conflict between Dudley and Randolph over matters relating to the colony's trade.

During Dudley's tenure, the Board of Trade decided on the basis of a petition from the Colonial Assembly to integrate the colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut into the Dominion with effect from September 9, 1686. Andros, whose appointment was issued in June, received a corresponding addition to his powers to implement integration.

Edmund Andros

Sir Edmund Andros

Andros, who had previously been governor of New York, reached Boston on December 20, 1686 and immediately took office. He was a hardliner and believed that when the colonists left English soil, they had given up all their rights as Englishmen. When in 1687 Pastor John Wise called on his congregation to protest and refuse to pay taxes, he had him jailed, convicted and fined. An Andros employee said, “Mr. Wise, you have no rights other than not to be sold as a slave ”.

The appointment of Andros determined him as governor and called for a council to support him. This was formally staffed with representatives from each of the colonies integrated into the Dominion, but was de facto dominated by envoys from Massachusetts and Plymouth, since the journey to Boston from the more distant colonies was difficult and the travel expenses were not reimbursed.

Church of England

Shortly after his arrival, Andros asked each of the Puritan churches in Boston whether the Church of England could use the respective meeting house. After being rejected everywhere, in 1687 he asked for and received the keys to the Third Church from Samuel Willard . The services there were held under the direction of Robert Ratcliff until the King's Chapel was built in 1688.

Tax laws

After Andros took office, the Governor's Council began a lengthy process of harmonizing legislation in the Dominion to bring it closer to English law. However, this was so time-consuming that Andros issued a proclamation in March 1687 stating that the old laws would remain in force until they were reviewed and, if necessary, reformulated. Since Massachusetts had no existing tax laws, a tax model was developed that was to be carried over to the Dominion as a whole. The first draft was drawn up by a commission of landowners and mainly provided for import duties on alcohol. This question was debated for a long time without result, whereupon another model was developed and also passed at short notice, which essentially put the old Massachusetts tax laws back into force. However, these were particularly unpopular with farmers who felt that taxes on livestock were too high. In order to generate income quickly, Andros also received approval from the council to increase import tariffs on alcohol.

The first attempts to enforce the new laws met fierce opposition in many Massachusetts cities. Quite a few of them refused to appoint agents to assess the population and property values, so that their official representatives were consequently arrested and taken to Boston. Some were fined and released, while others were imprisoned until they made credible promises to do their job. The Ipswich officials , who had been the strongest and most vocal in opposition to the new laws, were tried and convicted of unlawful crimes.

The other provinces did not oppose the implementation of the new laws, although taxes, at least in Rhode Island, were higher than under the previous colonial administration. The comparatively poor landowners in Plymouth were hit hard by the high levies on their livestock. Ironically, the new taxes decided by Andros in Massachusetts were less than before and less than any future taxes; nevertheless the colonists were very dissatisfied with Andros.

Congregational Assembly Laws

One consequence of the tax protests was that Andros restricted the community meetings, as the protests had their origin there. To this end, he introduced a new law according to which only one annual parish meeting was allowed, the sole purpose of which was to elect official representatives. Additional meetings - for whatever reason - were explicitly forbidden, and further content during the annual meeting was not permitted. This loss of sovereignty led to widespread hatred of Andros, and the colonists protested that they believed that the new assembly and tax laws violated the Magna Carta , which guaranteed tax collection by representatives of the people. Those who made this argument, however, had excluded large numbers of voters by demanding membership in the Church, and then taxing them, when the colonial charter was still in force.

Land ownership and taxes

Andros also inflicted great damage on the colonists by contesting their property rights; unlike in England, most of the settlers living in the colonies owned land. Since they saw "secure land as an elementary part of their freedom, their social status and their prosperity, they were appalled by the land consolidations and costly lawsuits for their property rights". Andros had received instructions from London to adapt the land tenure rights in the colonies to those in England. He was also supposed to collect property taxes to improve the colonial income. In Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine, colonial government documents often had formal defects such as missing colonial seals, and most documents did not provide for property taxes. The title deeds in Connecticut and Rhode Island were issued before the colonies had a charter, so in many cases it was disputed who actually owned which land.

The way in which Andros dealt with this situation split the colonists in two respects, since his actions attacked every landowner whose document could be questioned on even the smallest scale. Some landowners refused to be impressed and carried out the lawsuit against their rights, but most refused because they did not want to risk losing their land and viewed the process as a poorly disguised expropriation. This also included the Puritans in Plymouth and Massachusetts, some of whom owned huge estates. Since all Massachusetts real estate deeds had been issued under the now withdrawn charter, Andros invalidated them and required the landowners to reassert their tenure claims and to pay a fee and ongoing taxes to the Dominion for this.

During Andros's tenure, around 200 applications for new land deeds were made, but only 20 were approved.

The Connecticut Charter

Francis Nicholson

As Andros's jurisdiction also included Connecticut, shortly after his arrival in Boston he asked Connecticut Governor Robert Treat to hand over the colonial charter to him. Unlike Rhode Island, whose agents had immediately joined the Dominion, Connecticut formally recognized Andros' authority but did little to support him. The administration continued to act according to the charter, which was formally no longer valid, holding legislative meetings every quarter and electing official representatives from all areas of the colony, while Treat and Andros negotiated the waiver of the charter. In 1687, Andros finally decided to travel to Connecticut in person to bring the matter to a close. Accompanied by an honor guard, he reached Hartford on October 31 of the same year and met the colony leadership that evening. According to legend, that evening the charter was spread out on the table so that everyone could see it. Then, suddenly and unexpectedly, the lights in the room went out and when they were lit again the charter was gone. It is alleged that it was hidden in a nearby oak tree now known as the Charter Oak , so that it could not be found when the surrounding buildings were searched.

Regardless of the truth of this lore, the Connecticut records show that the colonial administration handed its seals to Andros on that day and ceased operations. Andros then traveled through the colony for some time to keep appointments before returning to Boston. On December 29, 1687, the Dominion formally expanded its borders to Connecticut, thus completing the integration of the colonies of New England.

Integration of New York and Jersey

On May 7, 1688, the former provinces of New York , East Jersey and West Jersey were added to the Dominion. Because they were far from central Boston, they were led by Deputy Governor Francis Nicholson , based in New York City . Nicholson, captain of the army and protégé of the colonial secretary William Blathwayt , came as part of the honor guard in early 1687 together with Andros to Boston and was eventually promoted to his council. In the summer of 1688 he traveled first to New York and then on to Jersey to take up his official duties. The administration of these areas within the Dominion was complicated, since the political predecessors, whose charter had been revoked, had kept their possessions and applied to Andros for traditional manorial rule . During the Dominion's brief existence, nothing important happened in the three areas as they were too far from the centers of power.

Indian diplomacy

In 1687 attacked New France Governor Marquis de Denonville the Seneca in today's Western New York to. His aim was to disrupt trade between the English in Albany and the Iroquois Federation, which included the Seneca, and to break the alliance known as the Covenant Chain that Andros had negotiated as governor of New York in 1677. Current New York Governor Thomas Dongan asked for help, and King James II ordered Andros to assist him. James II also began negotiations with Louis XIV , which led to an easing of the situation on the north-western border. On the northeastern border of New England, however, the Abenaki complaints about the English settlers increased, which ultimately led to an offensive by the Indians in 1688. Andros then undertook an expedition to Maine and raided a large number of Indian settlements, including the trading outpost of Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin on Penobscot Bay . That he spared his Catholic Church later became the subject of accusations as a papist against Andros.

When Andros took over the New York office in August 1688, he met the Iroquois in Albany to renew the agreement. At this meeting, however, he angered the Iroquois by calling them "children" - that is, subordinates - and not as "brothers" - that is, equals. He returned to Boston due to ongoing attacks by the Abenaki, who admitted to being goaded by the French. The situation in Maine had deteriorated again, where the English settlers raided Indian villages and took the prisoners to Boston. Andros punished the colonists in Maine for these unauthorized acts and ordered the release and return of the captured Indians, which aroused the hatred of the settlers. He then returned to Maine with a large force and began building additional fortifications to protect the colonists. He spent the entire winter in Maine and returned to Boston in March after hearing rumors of a revolution in England and rising discontent in Boston.

The Glorious Revolution and Dissolution of the Dominion

→ Main articles : Glorious Revolution , Boston Uprising in 1689,  and Leisler's Rebellion

Arrest of Governor Andros

The religious leaders in Massachusetts - especially Cotton and Increase Mather - were very dissatisfied with Andros and forced disputes to influence the court in London. After King Jacob had published the Declaration of Indulgence in May 1687 , which guaranteed extensive religious freedom in England , Increase Mather wrote a letter to the king thanking him for the new laws. At the same time, he recommended his confidants to show their gratitude to the king in order to gain influence. Ten pastors followed this recommendation and decided to send Mather to England to bring about a decision against Andros. Although Edward Randolph tried repeatedly by accusations and arrests to deter him, Mather secretly got on a ship for England in April 1688. He and other people from Massachusetts were received benevolently by King Jacob, who promised in October 1688 that he would take care of the concerns of the colonies. However, this did not happen because of the outbreak of the Glorious Revolution , and in December Jacob was already ruled by Wilhelm III. and Maria II replaced.

The Massachusetts envoys then filed a petition with the new rulers and the Board of Trade demanding the reinstatement of the old Massachusetts Charter. Mather also convinced the Board of Trade to delay notifying Andros of the revolution. He had already sent a letter prepared before the revolution to former colonial governor Simon Bradstreet , informing him that the charter had been illegally canceled and that the colonists "should be prepared for change". News of the revolution reached the first settlers in late March 1689, and Bradstreet is considered one of the organizers of the Boston uprising on April 18, 1689. On that day, he and other former colonial officials handed Andros an open letter in which he asked him to resign in order to calm the mob . Andros, Randolph, Dudley, and other Dominion supporters were arrested and taken to a Boston prison.

This led to the collapse of the Dominion, as in each colony the former colonial officials arrested the representatives of the Dominion and restored their own power. In Plymouth, Councilor Nathaniel Clark was arrested on April 22nd and former Governor Thomas Hinckley reinstated. Rhode Island wanted to hold elections together with the enactment of the charter on May 1st, but the former governor Walter Clarke refused the service, whereupon the colony waived a governor. In Connecticut, too, the previous administrative structures were quickly restored. In New Hampshire there was at times no formal government, so the colony was co-ruled by Simon Bradstreet from Massachusetts.

News of the Boston uprising reached New York on April 26th, but Governor Nicholson initially took no action. Andros was able to send a message to Nicholson while he was in captivity, asking for his assistance. This reached him in mid-May, but rising tensions in New York and the fact that most of his troops were in Maine left him with no opportunity to help. In late May, Nicholson was overthrown by angry colonists supported by militias during the Leisler's Rebellion , after which he fled to England. Leisler ruled New York until 1691 when King William appointed Henry Sloughter as the new governor. Sloughter sued Leisler for high treason ; the court presiding over Joseph Dudley found him guilty and sentenced him to death.

Consequences for Massachusetts and Plymouth

The dissolution of the Dominion meant legal problems for both Massachusetts and Plymouth, as Plymouth had never had a royal charter and that of Massachusetts had been legally repealed. As a result, the re-established colonial governments affected lacked the legal livelihoods, which the political opposition knew how to exploit. This led to difficulties in Massachusetts in particular, as the colony had a long border line with New France , whose defenders had been withdrawn after the revolution. The border area was therefore the scene of frequent attacks by the French and Indians with the outbreak of King William's War . Defense costs had to be met by high taxes, and the war itself also made it difficult to rebuild the colony's trade.

Both colonies had sent representatives to England to solve the legal problems. Increase Mather petitioned the Board of Trade to reinstate the old Massachusetts Charter. However, when King Wilhelm was informed that this would lead to a return of the hardline Puritan government, he prevented the restoration of the charter. Instead, the Board of Trade decided to solve the problem by uniting the two provinces. This resulted in the Province of Massachusetts Bay , whose charter was issued in 1691 and which began operations in 1692 under Governor Sir William Phips . The new province comprised Massachusetts, Plymouth, and the islands south of Cape Cod ( Martha's Vineyard , Nantucket, and the Elizabeth Islands ) that had previously formed Dukes County of the Province of New York .

List of administrators of the Dominion of New England in America

The following table represents the administrators of the Dominion from 1684 to 1689.

Surname	Official title	appointment	Start of official business	Term expires
Percy Kirke	Governor in Chief (designate) of the Dominion of New England	1684	Appointment withdrawn in 1685	Not applicable
Joseph Dudley	President of the Council of New England	October 8, 1685	May 25, 1686	December 20, 1686
Sir Edmund Andros	Governor in Chief of the Dominion of New England	June 3, 1686	December 20, 1686	April 18, 1689

literature

• James Truslow Adams: The Founding of New England . Atlantic Monthly Press, Boston 1921, OCLC 1068441 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
• Viola Florence Barnes: The Dominion of New England. A Study in British Colonial Policy (=  American Classics ). F. Ungar Pub. Co., New York 1960, OCLC 395292 .
• Randy Dunn: Patronage and Governance in Francis Nicholson's Empire . In: Ian Kenneth Steele, Nancy L. Rhoden (Eds.): English Atlantics revisited. Essays honoring Ian K. Steel . McGill-Queen's University Press, Montréal / Québec 2007, ISBN 978-0-7735-3219-9 , Chapter 4.
• Richard S. Dunn: The Glorious Revolution and America . In: Nicholas Canny (ed.): The Oxford history of the British Empire. The origins of Empire. British overseas enterprise to the close of the seventeenth century . tape 1 . Oxford university press, Oxford et al. 1998, ISBN 0-19-820562-7 , pp. 445-466 .
• Michael Garibaldi Hall: Edward Randolph and the American Colonies, 1676-1703 . University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC 1960, OCLC 423939 .
• Michael Garibaldi Hall: The last American Puritan. The life of Increase Mather, 1639-1723 . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT 1988, ISBN 0-8195-5128-7 .
• Everett Kimball: The public life of Joseph Dudley. Aa study of the colonial policy of the Stuarts in New England, 1660-1715 (=  Harvard historical studies . Volume 15 ). Longmans, Green and Co., New York, et al. 1911, OCLC 687882 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
• David Sherman Lovejoy: The glorious revolution in America . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT 1987, ISBN 0-8195-6177-0 .
• Mary Lou Lustig: The imperial executive in America. Sir Edmund Andros, 1637-1714 . Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Madison, NJ 2002, ISBN 0-8386-3936-4 .
• Guy Howard Miller: Rebellion in Zion. The Overthrow of the Dominion of New England . In: The Historian . tape 30 , no. 3 . Phi Alpha Theta, May 1968, ISSN  0018-2370 , p. 439-459 .
• Jacob Bailey Moore: Lives of the Governors of New Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. From the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in 1620, to the union of the two colonies in 1692 . CD Strong, Boston 1851, OCLC 11362972 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
• John Palfrey: History of New England (=  Making of modern law . 5 volumes, 1858-1890). Little, Brown, Boston, OCLC 60721741 ( catalog.hathitrust.org ).
• Owen Stanwood: The Protestant Moment. Antipopery, the Revolution of 1688–1689, and the Making of an Anglo-American Empire . In: North American Conference on British Studies (Ed.): The Journal of British studies . tape 46 , no. 3 . University of Chicago Press, 2007, ISSN  0021-9371 , OCLC 1783237 , p. 481-508 , JSTOR : 10.1086 / 515441 .
• Ian K. Steele: Origins of Boston's Revolutionary Declaration of April 18, 1689 . In: Colonial Society of Massachusetts; Northeastern University (Ed.): The New England Quarterly . tape 62 , no. 1 , March 1989, ISSN  0028-4866 , OCLC 1783237 , pp. 75-81 , JSTOR : 366211 .
• Alan Taylor: American colonies (=  Penguin history of the United States ). Penguin Books, New York 2002, ISBN 0-14-200210-0 .
• Charles Wesley Tuttle: New Hampshire Without Provincial Government, 1689-1690 . J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, MA 1880, OCLC 557979828 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
• Stephen Saunders Webb: Lord Churchill's coup. The Anglo-American empire and the Glorious Revolution reconsidered . Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, NY 1998, ISBN 0-585-25250-5 .

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Curtis P. Nettels: The roots of American civilization. A history of American colonial life . FS Crofts & Co., New York 1938, OCLC 478265 .
2. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 45.
3. ↑ cf. Barnes, pp. 47-48.
4. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 48.
5. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 49.
6. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 50.
7. ↑ cf. Barnes, pp. 50, 54.
8. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 51.
9. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 53.
10. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 55.
11. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 56.
12. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 58.
13. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 59.
14. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 61.
15. ↑ cf. Barnes, pp. 62-63.
16. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 68.
17. ↑ ^{a b} cf. Lustig, p. 141.
18. ↑ ^{a b} cf. Taylor, p. 277.
19. ↑ cf. Lustig, p. 164.
20. ↑ cf. Lustig, p. 165.
21. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 84.
22. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 85.
23. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, p. 184.
24. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 97.
25. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 176.
26. ↑ cf. Barnes, pp. 182, 187.
27. ↑ cf. Barnes, pp. 189-193.
28. ↑ cf. Barnes, pp. 199-201.
29. ^ Federal Writer's Project for the State of Connecticut: Connecticut. A guide to its roads, lore, and people (=  American guide series ). Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston 1938, OCLC 5289016 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
30. ↑ cf. Palfrey, pp. 545-546.
31. ↑ cf. Palfrey, p. 548.
32. ↑ cf. Dunn, p. 64.
33. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, p. 211.
34. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, pp. 212-213.
35. ↑ cf. Lustig, p. 171.
36. ↑ cf. Lustig, p. 173.
37. ↑ cf. Lustig, p. 174.
38. ↑ cf. Lustig, p. 176.
39. ↑ cf. Lustig, pp. 177-179.
40. ↑ cf. Hall (1988), pp. 207-210.
41. ↑ cf. Hall (1988), p. 210.
42. ↑ cf. Hall (1988), pp. 210-211.
43. ↑ cf. Hall (1988), p. 217.
44. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 234.
45. ↑ cf. Barnes, pp. 234-235.
46. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 238.
47. ↑ cf. Steele, p. 77.
48. ↑ cf. Steele, p. 78.
49. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, p. 241.
50. ↑ cf. Palfrey, p. 596.
51. ↑ cf. Tuttle, pp. 1-12.
52. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, p. 252.
53. ↑ cf. Lustig, p. 199.
54. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, pp. 255-256.
55. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, pp. 326-338.
56. ↑ cf. Kimball, pp. 61-63.
57. ↑ cf. Lovejoy, pp. 355-357.
58. ↑ cf. Barnes, p. 257.