First Turk Kaganat

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The first kaganat of the Kök Turks in 600

The first Turk Kaganat was a steppe empire of the Kök Turks in Central Asia .

The Kaganat was created in 552 after the Kök Turks had defeated the Rouran ; it was soon divided into two parts: the western Turk-Kaganat , which existed until 630, and the eastern Turk-Kaganat , which lasted until 659. Both parts were conquered by the China of the Tang Dynasty .

After a few years, the Kök Turks renewed their empire in 682 and founded the second Turk Kaganat .

founding

In the sixth century, the tribe described by the Chinese as "tujue" and called "turk" in its own name appeared in the Chinese annals. The Turks were originally based in East Turkestan and the Altai , and inherited the tradition and administrative experience of their predecessors. The door were skilled Ironforge and controlled the economically strategic point, the intersection of two trade routes: one leading to the Altai over and joined the Orkhon -Tal the east with the Ili -Tal in the West, the other led by the upper Yenisei south to the Altai and Tianshan . In fact, a number of iron-metallurgical sites are known from what is now the Russian part of the Altai for the early Middle Ages.

The Turk lived under the sovereignty of the Rouran (a presumably predominantly Altaic large confederation). 520 there was a dispute for the throne among the Rouran, which led to the fact that first the inferior A-na-kuei, later also the superior Polo-men, sought refuge with the Chinese due to an attack by the presumably Turkish Gaoche . The Chinese helped both Rouran rulers gain power with the divide et impera strategy . Po-lo-men was not satisfied with the area allotted to them and sought assistance from the Hephthalites . He died under unexplained circumstances after being captured by the Wei (a Chinese dynasty whose rulers came from the Tabgatsch ). Taking advantage of the disputes, the Gaoche tried again in 546 to free themselves from the supremacy of the Rouran. However, the Turks notified A-na-kuei and prevented the Gaoche from being successful. The leader of the Türk Bumin now asked the Rouran ruler A-na-kuei to give him one of his daughters as his wife, which A-na-kuei refused on the grounds that it was inappropriate for the tribe that the Grand Confederation considered Blacksmith slaves served to deliver a princess. Bumin probably took this as an insult, he married a princess of the Western Wei (a successor state of the Northern Wei , who came from the Tabgatsch people) and revolted against the Rouran.

In the year 552 Bumin defeated the ruling house of the Rouran and thus created the conditions for the foundation of a new empire. Like almost all (Kök) Turk rulers, Bumin came from the noble family of A-shih-na . Bumin's empire lasted (with an interruption in the second half of the 7th century) from 552 to 742.

division

The Empire of the Kök Turks after the partition, 552.

State founder Bumin became the first ruler ( Khan ) of the established Turkish Empire. As was common with the previous Central Asian nomadic empires, the Turkish Empire was divided into two administrative units soon after it was founded - in 552 either under Bumin Kaghan or under his successor Kuo-lo Kaghan, whose name is only known in Chinese sources through its description is. The western part was politically subordinate to the eastern part - in fact, however, the ruler of the western part ruled as an independent ruler. Only later, in 581, did the two parts of the empire fall under Chinese influence. No source reports on the short reign of Bumin, who died in the year the empire was founded - i.e. 552. (See Turkish inscriptions on Bumin and Iştämi's rule )

Kuo-lo ruled the empire only for a short time (until 553); his successor was Bumin's eldest son, Muhan. Muhan ruled the eastern part, his representative in the western part, the Yabghu of the kingdom of the Kök-Turks, was Bumin's younger brother Iştämi (mostly equated with Sizabulos , but this is not entirely certain). The western part formed the area west of the Altai . Muhan ruled until 572, Iştämi until 575/76.

Eastern Kaganat

Largest expansion of the Eastern Turk Kaganat around 520. The Pacific was probably not reached

The events in the eastern part from 552 onwards during the reign of Muhan and that of his successor Taspar did not reach the same world-historical dimension as the events in the western Turkish empire. Muhan's possibilities to expand his state could only have been realized in the West at the expense of the brother state of the Western Turks.

In the south of the eastern Turkish empire of Muhan were the dynasties of the Northern Qi and the Northern Zhou (from 550 and 557 respectively, both dynasties had emerged from the division of the Tabgach ), which were involved in mutual battles and therefore were not strong opponents, were in the east the apparently Mongolian Kitan and in the north there were the Kyrgyz . Muhan married one of his daughters, apparently as a diplomatic gesture to the Northern Zhou, and thus had his back free to take action against the Kitan and Kyrgyz. He defeated the Kitan in 560 and conquered the areas of the upper Yenisei. The Yenisei Kyrgyz became vassals who mined iron and gold, which they had to give to Muhan as a tribute with "gritted teeth" (as noted in 583 Chinese chronicles).

The Bugut stele, discovered in 1956 and deciphered in 1971, raises questions about Muhammad's successor. Mahan Tegin presumably ruled for a few years before Taspar took control of the Eastern Empire. The tegin designates on the one hand a member of the Khan's family and on the other hand it is the name for the permanent representative of the Khan and for the successor appointed by the Khan himself. It is assumed that Mahan Tegin was Khan over the Gök-Turkish Empire for a few years after the rule of Muhan and before the rule of Taspar.

Taspar Khan's rule and Buddhism

After the onset of religious persecution in 574 under Emperor Wudi of the Northern Zhou , the Buddhist monk Jinagupta left the Northern Zhou Dynasty. He accepted an invitation from Taspar Khan to the Eastern Turkish Empire and was probably the one who founded the Buddhist community among the Turks. At the request of Taspar Khan, a samgha (a Buddhist monastic community) was established between 572 and 581 , with which Taspar Khan officially accepted Buddhism .

During the reign of Taspar, the Kök-Turkish Empire was still stable internally and externally. The two successor states of the Tabgatsch - Northern Qi and Northern Zhou - were probably tributary dependent on the Kök Turks. The annals of the Sui Dynasty - the Sui Shu - write:

“During this period (Taspar's reign), T'a-po (Taspar's name in Chinese sources) had some 100,000 soldiers and China was afraid of him. Both the North Zhou and the North Qi vied to marry the ruling family of the T'u-küe; they emptied their treasure chambers in order to serve the T'u-küe with (the valuables). T'a-po became more and more arrogant and used to say to his subjects: If only my two sons in the south (the emperors of North Zhou and of the North Qi) continue to be pious and obedient, then I will still have to fear poverty ? "

After Taspar's death in 581 and the rise of his brother Nivar to power, there was a rift between the two Turk Kaganats, under Chinese influence, because of rivalries between the two parts of the empire and within the eastern part of the hegemonic power in the entire empire. The arguments between the supporters and opponents of Buddhism in the ruling clan were among the reasons for the quarrels within the eastern part. Similar tensions caused the Tabgatsch split. Between 582 and 584, the western part under the Yabghu Tardu broke away from the dominance of the eastern part, which was a psychological moment for the eastern Turks. Tardu was apparently a son of Iştämi and possibly a brother of Turxanthos (if Sizabulos was their father together and is identical with Iştämi, see above).

Fall of the Eastern Kaganat

Tardu must have been encouraged to take this step by the Chinese Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen had united large parts of northern China in the Sui Dynasty and saw the weakening of the Turks as an important condition for their own survival. Initially, both parts of the Turkish khaganate had an alliance with China, but after the annihilation of the Northern Zhou dynasty by Emperor Wen, some Tabgatsch fled to the khan's court in the eastern Turkish empire and tried to persuade the Turks to reclaim their power to help in northern China.

The Sui tried to sow discord between the eastern and western Turkish empires and to incite the Turks against the Tabgatsch. The clashes among the Eastern Turks reached such proportions that Nivar Khan, who ruled from 581 to 587, was challenged for power by two of his cousins. In the west of the Eastern Turkish Empire there were armed conflicts with the Western Turks, in the east there were battles with the Kitan. After the weakening of the eastern khaganate, the Chinese now supported Nivar Khan, because Tardu in the west could become too strong after the weakening of the eastern part and found a new all-Turkish empire - this time with the western part as the hegemonic power.

Nivar's successor was Mu-ho-tua from 587 (name only known from Chinese tradition). He killed his rival, but died himself the same year he took office. His successor T'u-lan (name only known from Chinese tradition), who ruled from 587 to 600, was also confronted with a rival (named T'u-lin ) who was supported by China.

The Chinese took in the defeated T'u-lin and his followers, as this separation of T'u-lin and his followers from the Eastern Turkish Empire led to a split in the Eastern Turkish Empire for several years. In 600 T'u-lin came to power over the entire Eastern Turkish Empire. Under his son Shih-pi (609–619), the Eastern Turkish Empire briefly regained its strength - the Sui dynasty was itself involved in dynastic disputes and was once again exposed to an Eastern Turkish threat.

In 624, under the new Khaghan Xieli (also Illig ), there was a new attack by the Eastern Turks against China. The Tang dynasty had now taken power there and successfully fended off Xieli. Six years later, Xieli attacked China again. The Tang dynasty had become very strong under Emperor Taizong . After his unsuccessful attack, Xieli had to finally submit to the Chinese in 630, who were supported by the Xueyantuo .

Inscriptions on the decline

The Köl-Tegin inscription tells of the greatness and the wisdom of the first kaghane and mentions that the Chinese, the Tibetans, the Avars , from Byzantium , came from the Kyrgyz to the burial of the first kaghane . The later Kaghane are then criticized:

“Then the younger brothers ascended the throne, and the sons ascended the throne. But obviously the younger brothers did not resemble their older brothers and the sons did not resemble their fathers. So kaghans without wisdom ascended the throne, bad kaghans ascended the throne. And their advisors were also devoid of wisdom and bad. Because there was disagreement between the nobles and the people and because the Chinese people were cunning and false, for they were devious and divided younger and older brothers and caused the nobles and the people to denigrate one another. So the Turkish people let their state, which they had founded, perish and let the Kaghan, which they had put on the throne, collapse. Their sons, who should have become nobles, became slaves, and their daughters, who should have become noble women, became slaves of the Chinese people. The Turkish nobles gave up their Turkish title. "

Western Kaganat

Largest extension of the Western Turk Kaganat around 560

The first Yabghu of the western part was Istämi , who ruled from 552 to 576. About ten years after taking office, there were armed conflicts with the Hephthalites . An (albeit very brief) alliance came about between Sassanid Persia and the Western Turks: The Hephthalites were attacked and defeated from different sides, for example in 560 in the battle of Gol-Zarriun. They then fled the area ( Badakhshan in northeast Afghanistan was their center) and their empire was divided between the Turks and the Sassanids. The Sassanids got Bactria , but the Turks took it away from them.

The acquisition of the Hephtalite territory meant that the Turks gained an extremely important economic factor: control over a significant part of the Silk Road .

The silk road

The Silk Road led from Gansu about 7000 km to the Black Sea . South of the Gobi it went 2000 km to Kumul , where the path divided. One of the routes led west to the Tarim Basin and the old city-states, the other route led north-west (north of the Tianshan ), then south-west to Samarkand , Bukhara and Marw . From Samarkand there were roads to Bactria and India, to the Parthian and Sassanid empires , to Anatolia and Syria , to Khoresmia , i.e. east of the Caspian Sea , north of the Black Sea, i.e. a road that led to Byzantium. Silk, cotton, spices and drugs were transported on the Silk Road.

The transport of raw silk from China and textile processing from the silk formed an important factor in the Sassanid-Eastern Roman trade. However, Persia and Ostrom were traditionally enemies and had waged war several times. The Turkish Empire therefore now played an important strategic and economic role: it could close the Silk Road at will and help Eastern Stream to surround the Sassanid Persia. Soon after 560 the Eastern Roman Empire therefore tried to win the Turks as allies.

Eastern Roman-Turkish Alliance

The Sassanids were aware of this danger and took drastic measures to demonstrate to the Turks that they did not want the middleman to be taken out of their hands. In one action, the Persians bought the goods of Sogdian merchants who came in the name of the Turkish khan, but then demonstratively burned them. Another Turkish trade delegation to Persia was just as unsuccessful: several members of the delegation were allegedly even killed (according to researchers such as James Howard-Johnston , however, the Turks created this pretext for an attack themselves). In any case, the Turks felt compelled to establish direct contact with the Eastern Roman-Byzantine Empire (see also Central Asia in Late Antiquity ).

In 567 an embassy was sent to Constantinople in the name of the Khan . The delegation was led by the Sogdier Maniakh . The Eastern Roman Emperor Justin II , who sought a revision of the Roman-Persian peace treaty concluded in 562, received Maniakh warmly.

In Constantinople, the Turkish delegation was astonished to see Chinese silkworms - the Romans probably wanted to demonstrate their economic independence from the Turks with them ( silkworms were smuggled to Eastern Europe as early as 550 under Emperor Justinian I ). On the other hand, the imperial interest in good contact with the Turks is sealed by the fact that, together with the Turkish delegation - which returned after a full year at the Eastern Roman court - an imperial diplomat named Zemarchus was sent out, the 569 guest at the court of the Turkish ruler Sizabulos (so its Greek form of name) was. A Turkish-Roman alliance against Sassanid Persia came about there.

Zemarchus was impressed by his reception and the pomp at the Turkish court. The descriptions by Eastern Roman authors ( Menander Protektor , John of Ephesus ), which are probably based on his report , tell of a golden throne on wheels on which the Turkish Yabghu sat, of gilded wooden pillars, vast amounts of silver dishes and a golden bed.

In 572 the war broke out, and although the reports in the sources are only sparse, the main features of the events are clear: the Sassanids under Chosrau I were able to successfully defend themselves against the Roman-Turkish pincer attack and to repel their enemies on both fronts by 573. There were nevertheless several diplomatic contacts between Ostrom and the Turkish Kaghanat until 576, which prove how important it was for the emperors to have an ally against the Sassanids. Emperor Tiberius Constantinus sent Valentinus as an ambassador, but he no longer met Iştämi, who died in 575, but rather his successor, his son Tardu. Valentinus took part in the funeral ceremonies for Iştämi and on his return reported about the custom of killing the khan's favorite horses and cutting his face, which Valentinos also had to go through. Overall, however, the eastern Roman hopes were disappointed, the war against Persia dragged on until 591 and was finally ended not because of the alliance with the Turks, but because of internal turmoil (see Roman-Persian Wars ).

Decline of the Western Kaganate

Tardu was disgruntled by the alliance of the Byzantines with the Avars , whom he saw as being under the Turkish sphere of influence. Under him, the conflicts with Byzantium soon took on warlike forms; but the Turks also cultivated their hostilities against the Sassanids. Tardu advanced as far as Herat in 588/589 , he could not take Herat, but today's northern Afghanistan with the important cities of Kunduz and Balkh became dependent on the Turks.

Tardu is considered a statesman with no diplomatic skills. His will to expand his sphere of influence led to clashes with Byzantium, the Sassanids and even with the Eastern Turkish Khan. Under Chinese influence, there was a rift between the two Turk Kaganats in 581, Tardu renounced the Eastern Turkish Empire in 584 and an alliance with Sui China against the Eastern Turks .

Tardu was killed in an uprising by the Töliş tribes. His empire subsequently fell victim to intra-dynastic rivalries. Tardu's grandson Shih-kuei got the west of the Western Turkish Empire, Ch'u-lo got the east. Since Ch'u-lo showed similar attempts at power as Tardu, the Chinese withdrew their support, so that Shih-kuei prevailed.

But once again a rise was achieved. Shih-kuei's successor T'ung shih-hu (618–630) managed to expand the Turks' sphere of power beyond the Oxus . At that time the western part stretched from the Altai over the Hindu Kush to the Caspian Sea . According to the report of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang , T'ung shih-hu showed great interest in Buddhism. Xuanzang describes life at the court of the khan T'ung shih-hu : the khan wore a cloak made of green satin, he had a long silk ribbon tied around his head, 200 officers were around him in brocade coats , the khan had several horses , Camels and was well armed with troops. Xuanzang describes his reception as an impressive ceremony. In 627, the Turks intervened again in the conflict between the East and the Sassanids by attacking eastern Persia as an ally of the emperor Herakleios . This time their intervention seems to have contributed decisively to the defeat of the Persians under Chosrau II , but a little later their position of power collapsed: T'ung-shih-hu died in 630 during a Karluk uprising . Power struggles broke out between the ten western Turkish tribes, as a result of which the Chinese succeeded in 657 dividing western Turkish territory into two Chinese protectorates. In 659, the western Turkish empire is finally annexed by China.

After that

In the course of the dissolution of the western Turkish empire, various tribes migrated westward - among the most important are the Khazars , who established an empire on the Sea of ​​Azov .

A few years after the destruction of their empires, the Kök Turks renewed their empire and founded the second Turk Kaganat in 682 .

Ruler

Note : The names of the rulers ( khans ) with whom they were named in Chinese sources are noted in italics . The original Turkish names have been known since the discovery of various Turkish steles ( Orkhon runes , Bugut stele, etc.). If the Turkish name is not listed, it is still unknown today. (Status: Scharlipp 1992)

  • Bumin ( T'u-men , 552-552)

Eastern part

  • Kuo-lo (552-553)
  • Muhan (553-572)
  • possibly Mahan Tegin (only mention by name in the Bugut stele from the year 580. Probable transitional Khan of the Turks before Taspar.)
  • Taspar ( T'a-po , 572-581)
  • Nivar ( Sha-po-liu , 581-587)
  • Mu-ho-tua (587)
  • T'u-lan (587-600)
  • T'u-lin (600-609)
  • Shih-pi (609-619)
  • Hsieh-li (619-630)
  • Incorporation by China (630)

Western part

The administrators of the western part carried the title of Yabgu until Taspar's death in 581 .

  • Iştämi (552–575 / 76)
  • Tardu (576-603)
  • Shih-kuei (603–618, ruled the west of the western part) / Ch'u-lo (briefly ruled the east of the western part)
  • T'ung shih-hu (618-630), also known as Tong Yabghu called
  • Power struggles between the ten tribes of the Western Turkish Empire (630-657)
  • Tu-lu (633-634)
  • Tu-lu (638–653, not to be confused with the previous Tu-lu)
  • Division of the Western Turkish Empire into two Chinese protectorates (657–659)
  • Incorporation by China (659)

literature

  • Edouard Chavannes : Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux (= Sbornik Trudov Orchonskoj Ėkspedicii. Vol. 6). Académie Impériale des Sciences, St. Petersburg 1903 (reprint. Adrien-Maisonneuve, Paris 1941).
  • René Giraud: L'Empire des Turcs Célestes. Les Règnes d'Elterich, Qapghan et Bilgä (680-734). Contribution to the History of the Turcs d'Asie Centrale. Adrien-Maisonneuve, Paris 1960.
  • René Grousset : The steppe peoples. Attila, Genghis Khan, Tamerlane. Magnus-Verlag, Essen 1975.
  • Elcin Kürsat-Ahlers : On the early formation of states by steppe peoples. About the socio- and psychogenesis of the Eurasian nomadic empires using the example of the Xiongnu and Gök Turks, with an excursion about the Scythians (= social science writings. Vol. 28). Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1994, ISBN 3-428-07761-X (also: Hanover, University, dissertation, 1992).
  • Liu Mau-Tsai: The Chinese news on the history of the Eastern Turks (T'u-küe) (= Göttingen Asian research. Vol. 10, 1–2, ZDB ID 503905-8 ). 2 volumes (Vol. 1: Texts. Vol. 2: Notes, Appendices, Index. ). O. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1958.
  • Ali Kemal Meram: Göktürk İmparatorluğu (= Milliyet Yayin Ṣti. Yayinlari. Tarih Dizisi. Vol. 35, ZDB -ID 2394701-9 ). Milliyet Yayinlari, Istanbul 1974.
  • Edward H. Parker: A thousand years of the Tartars. S. Low, Marston & Co., London 1895 (reprinted. Routledge, London et al. 1996, ISBN 0-415-15589-4 ).
  • Jürgen Paul : Central Asia. S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2012 ( New Fischer World History , Volume 10).
  • Wolfgang Scharlipp: Brief overview of the Buddhist literature of the Turks. In: Materialia Turcica. Vol. 6, 1980, ISSN  0344-449X , pp. 37-53.
  • Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp : The early Turks in Central Asia. An introduction to their history and culture. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1992, ISBN 3-534-11689-5 .
  • Denis Sinor : Inner Asia. History - Civilization - Language. A syllabus (= Indiana University Publications. Uralic and Altaic Series. Vol. 96, ISSN  0445-8486 ). Indiana University, Bloomington 1969.
  • Denis Sinor (Ed.): The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge et al .;
    • Volume 1: From the earliest times to the rise of the Mongols. 1990, ISBN 0-521-24304-1 (also: ibid 1994), (only this volume has been published so far).
  • Sören Stark: On Oq Bodun. The Western Türk Qaghanate and the Ashina Clan. In: Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi. Vol. 15, 2006/2007, ISSN  0724-8822 , pp. 159-172.
  • Sören Stark: The Old Turkish Period in Central and Central Asia. Archaeological and historical studies (= nomads and settled people. Vol. 6). Reichert, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-89500-532-9 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 12, p. 18
  2. ↑ Sören Stark: The Ancient Turkish Period in Central and Central Asia , p. 57
  3. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 11f.
  4. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 18f., P. 30, p. 133
  5. ↑ Linska, Handl, Rasuly-Paleczek: Introduction to the Ethnology of Central Asia, p. 59
  6. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp The Early Turks in Central Asia , p. 19.
  7. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp The Early Turks in Central Asia , p. 19.
  8. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp The Early Turks in Central Asia , p. 19.
  9. ↑ a b c Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 20
  10. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 20f.
  11. ↑ a b Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 21f.
  12. ↑ Linska, Handl, Rasuly-Paleczek: Introduction to the Ethnology of Central Asia , p. 59
  13. ↑ a b c d Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 22
  14. ↑ a b c d Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 23
  15. ↑ a b c d e f Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 24
  16. ^ Jürgen Paul: Central Asia. Frankfurt am Main 2012, p. 76
  17. ↑ a b c Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 25
  18. ↑ a b c Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 26
  19. ↑ a b c Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 27
  20. ↑ Sören Stark: The Ancient Turkish Period in Central and Central Asia , pp. 192–194
  21. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 27f .: The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang reports that a member of the western Turkish ruling house ruled in this area.
  22. ↑ Linska, Handl, Rasuly-Paleczek: Introduction to the Ethnology of Central Asia, p. 59
  23. ↑ a b c d e Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 28
  24. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 28f.
  25. ↑ a b c d Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 29
  26. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 18f.
  27. ↑ a b Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks in Central Asia , p. 19
  28. ↑ Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp: The early Turks , p. 52/53
  29. ↑ Denis Sinor The legendary Origin of the Türks , in Egle Victoria Zygas, Peter Voorheis Folklorica: Festschrift for Felix J. Oinas , p. 228; Édouard Chavannes: Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux , 1903, p. 27
  30. ↑ Denis Sinor: The legendary Origin of the Türks , in Egle Victoria Zygas, Peter Voorheis: Folklorica: Festschrift for Felix J. Oinas , p. 227