History of Ireland (until 800 AD)
The few pieces of evidence about pre-Christian Ireland come from records of the Roman Empire , from archaeologists' excavations and from traditional poems and Irish mythology .
Paleolithic
During the height of the last ice age , the Irish island was almost completely covered by glaciers. 300 m thick layers of ice formed the landscape, destroyed rocks and evidence of possible earlier settlement. Something similar happened on the British Isles , where evidence of Ice Age settlement was still found in the (ice-free) south .
Mesolithic (8000 BC-4000 BC)
While on the continent the sequence of human activities is captured in archaeological cultures , this was not done on the British Isles , where only the sequence of pottery (e.g. Peterborough ware ) was categorized. At the end of the last ice age, present-day Northern Ireland was connected to Scotland via the land bridge of the Kintyre peninsula and to the continent via England, with sea level about 100 m lower . With warming, oak, elm, and ash began to replace the arctic flora. The giant deer ( Megaloceros giganteus ) with antlers up to 3.6 m did not die out in Ireland until this time. Despite the land bridge, it is believed that the island was first settled by boat, as most of the Mesolithic settlement finds are in coastal areas, which, however, also offered the widest range of usable resources.
The earliest evidence of human settlement after the ice retreated dates from the period between 8000 and 7000 BC. Residences of Mesolithic hunters and gatherers can be found in various places (from north to south) z. B .:
- on Mount Sandel in County Londonderry
- Curran in County Antrim
- Woodpark in County Sligo
- Lough Boora in County Offaly
- at the mouth of the Shannon in County Clare
- at Ferriter's Cove in County Kerry
- and in various places in the province of Munster
The early Mesolithic shows geometric microliths that date from 7000 BC on Mount Sandel. Were found. This oldest residential area in Ireland was discovered in 1972 on the river Bann . Charred hazelnut shells made it possible to date it. The oval huts were probably covered with bark. The residents caught salmon and eels , gathered nuts, fruits and berries and hunted game. The late Mesolithic ( Larnian ), which was particularly widespread in the north-east, shows an industry without microliths consisting of large deposits . Core and disc axes were probably used for woodworking. First cut axes made of rock appear ( Ferriter's Grove ). During the Mesolithic , the island's population was believed to be less than 10,000 people.
Neolithic (4500 BC-2500 BC)
With the arrival of arable farmers in Ireland (around 4000 BC), livestock, grain, and related innovation came to Ireland, causing significant population growth. Pottery emerged and sharpened stone tools were increasingly used. The pottery is similar to that on the British Isles. Typical for this culture were vessels with a round bottom and a pronounced kink (carinated bowls) (Lyle's Hill Pottery), etc. In wetlands that had been left behind by the glaciers, the first raised bogs formed. In the Céide Fields ( County Mayo ) a well-preserved extensive field system from the Neolithic and the Bronze Age was found under a layer of peat - so far the oldest in the world. The area consists of small fields that were separated by stone walls and probably between 3500 and 3000 BC. Were cultivated. Mainly wheat and barley were grown .
Megalithic monuments were religious and ceremonial sites. Most of them were mostly cremated human remains and grave goods - pottery, arrowheads, jewelry, hatchets, etc. These plants, of which more than 1200 have been discovered, can be divided into four large and several small groups:
- Court tombs : Characterized by a court ( Creevykeel ). You can find these systems almost exclusively in the northern half of the island.
- Passage tombs : The smallest group in terms of numbers, but particularly impressive in terms of size, can be found mainly in the north and east of the island. This group includes the facilities of Fourknocks , Knowth , Newgrange and Loughcrew (all in County Meath ), Carrowkeel , Carrowmore (both in County Sligo ).
- Portal tombs : This type includes dolmens (such as Legananny and Proleek ) found mainly in the south-east and north of the country.
- Wedge tombs : The numerically largest of the four groups is found mainly in the west (County Clare) and southwest. Theyowetheir name ( wedge ) to their wedge shape. Some of them date to the early Bronze Age.
- Stone boxes (cists) are the youngest and already Metal Age form of megalithic stone buildings.
The theory that the four major monument groups are related to four waves of resettlement still has supporters but has to be rejected. Around 2500 BC The bell beaker people appear , who brought metalworking and an Indo-European language with them.
Bronze Age (2500 BC-700 BC)
Now weapons and tools were made from bronze . Swords, axes, daggers, hatchets, drinking utensils and horn-shaped trumpets are just a few of the items found during excavations from this period.
The copper used to make bronze was mined in Ireland itself. The earliest copper mine found so far is on Ross Island in County Kerry - it was mined and processed here from 2400 BC. Until 1800 BC Besides this mine, the one at Mount Gabriel in County Cork is also worth mentioning. It is now believed that the mines in Cork and Kerry produced up to 370 tons of copper during the Bronze Age and that Ireland was one of the main exporters of the period. The tin that is also required was probably imported from Cornwall .
In addition to copper, there is also gold in Ireland , which was first processed during the Bronze Age. More Bronze Age gold implements have been discovered in Ireland than anywhere else in Europe. Gold jewelry from Ireland ( lunulae ) was even found in Germany and Scandinavia . At the beginning of the Bronze Age the ornaments consisted of simple crescent-shaped or round thin discs of gold. Only later were gold earrings and pendants made in various shapes. Bronze axes and copper hatchets in Ireland are a separate genus.
During the Bronze Age wedge tombs continued to be built, albeit smaller ones , but the passage tombs were largely left to their own devices. Towards the end of the age, in addition to the so-called stone boxes , various stone circles were erected, which are mainly found in Ulster and Munster .
Towards the end of the Bronze Age, not many more people are likely to have lived on the Irish island than at the end of the Neolithic.
Iron age
Around 300 BC The transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age occurred . Iron Age monument types that are characteristic of Great Britain and the continent: Small enclosures , mounds of earth, shallow burial grounds, hill forts and temples are rare in Ireland. It appears that from the late Bronze Age onwards, Ireland was far less influenced by cultural influences from the continent than Britain. A continental element is the art of the La Tène period . It is mostly used in Ireland as a decoration on a relatively small number of objects made from reading finds. La Tene decoration is occasionally found on bones and stones. A finely decorated stone comes from the church ruins of Derrykeighan (Antrim). The double-sided illustration on Boa Island ( County Fermanagh ) is incomparable in Ireland but presumably dates to the Iron Age through continental analogies. The adoption of a Celtic language (later Irish ) is usually put into the Iron Age, but this is unlikely and does not involve a cultural break.
The Celtic languages in the British and Irish Isles can be divided into two groups: P-Celtic languages (occurred on the British Isles) and Q-Celtic languages (occurred in the Irish Isles). In the past, it was assumed that Q-Celts settled in Ireland and P-Celts on the British island , and even today one often reads the statement that there was a Celtic invasion in Irish history. According to this view, 350 BC. A group of people called the Milesians introduced the Irish language into Ireland and subjugated the pre-Celtic inhabitants by means of their superior weapons. This thesis is, however, very simplified, because most migratory movements at that time were, according to recent studies, much more complex.
The Y-chromosomes of today's Irish population are characterized by the mutation of the marker gene M343, which defines the haploid group R1b - this is dominantly represented (in various degrees) from the Iberian Peninsula to Scandinavia .
O'Rahilly's historic model
The scholar Thomas Francis O'Rahilly suggested the historical model named after him based on his studies of the influence of the Irish language and the analysis of Irish mythology and pseudo-history . His ideas, while extremely influential, are not universally accepted. According to the O'Rahilly model, there were four waves of Celtic invaders :
- The Cruithne or Priteni (approx. 700 BC to 500 BC)
- The Builg and Érainn ( ca.500 BC)
- The Lagin , the Domnainn and the Gálioin (approx. 300 BC)
- The Goidels or Gael (c. 100 BC)
The conquest of Ulster
The scriptures known today go back to the year 431 AD. The King of Tara , known as Niall Noígiallach ( Niall of the Nine Hostages ), is the earliest historical person whose existence in the 7th century is not in doubt and of whom more than vague details are known. His father, Eochu Mugmedón, was also King of Tara and ruler of the kingdom whose territory corresponds to County Meath .
Niall followed his father and is said to have been king for 27 years. His reign established the rise of Tara as at least a literary dominant force in Ireland. The origin of power, however, lay in the conquest of Ulster - the end point of a centuries-old conflict between the Gael of Tara and the Ulaid of Emain Macha . This conflict is described in the mythological Ulster cycle , which contains the national epic Táin Bó Cúailnge .
The conquest of Ulster was led by three of Niall's sons: Conall Gulban, Eógan and Énda. Each of the three sons received three subkingdoms as a reward in the west of the newly conquered area. As a result of the conquest, Ulster was divided into three main kingdoms ( overkingdoms ):
- Ulidia in the east roughly corresponds to today's Counties Antrim and Down . Ulidia was ruled by the Dál nAraide , a dynasty who allied themselves with Niall's sons in war. The Ulaid (or Dál Fiatach ), who dominated this area for centuries, were defeated and the headquarters of Emain Macha destroyed. The rest of the Ulaid population was evicted. The conquest of this area by the Gaelen had an impact on Scottish history: one of the Ernean tribes in northeast Ulster, the Dál Riata , went to the British Isles, where they settled Argyll and over time became a regional power. The Kingdom of Scotland was established in the 9th century by the Union of the Dál Riada and the resident Kingdom of Pictavia .
- Airgialla (also called the Kingdom of Oriel ) was in the center of Ulster and corresponds largely to the present-day counties of Derry , Tyrone , Fermanagh , Armagh , Monaghan and Louth . This kingdom was actually an amalgamation of nine sub-kingdoms. In order to ensure their loyalty, the rulers were forced to send a high-ranking family member to Tara as a "hostage". This is where the name Airgialla comes from, whichmeans “ hostage dispatcher ” and is the origin of Niall's nickname Noigiallach or Niall of the Nine Hostages .
- Ailech (or Aileach ) in the west corresponded to what is now County Donegal . Initially it consisted of the three sub-kingdoms Tír Eógain , Tír Chonaill and Tír Énda , but Tír Énda was later conquered by descendants of Conall and incorporated into Tír Chonaill - even if descendants of Énda still had a few small areas in this area (as well as in the Midlands) controlled. The power of the two remaining kingdoms grew over time and their names give rise to what are now counties Donegal and Tyrone . Ailech was ruled for about eight centuries by the descendants of Conall and Eógan - both together are known as the northern Uí Néill and produced several Irish high kings . Ailech's captivity (around 425) marked the end of the Gaelic conquest of Ulster.
After Niall's death, his son Lóegaire mac Néill took control of Tara. During his reign, Roman Christianity was introduced into Ireland. Niall of the Nine Hostages is considered to be the ancestor of all (but two) lines of the Irish High Kings who ruled from the 5th century to the time of Brian Bórú in the 11th century.
Early Christian Ireland (400-800)
The middle centuries of the first millennium of the present day saw great changes in Ireland. At the political level, the previous tribal affiliations were replaced by patrilineal ruling dynasties (son follows father) until the 700s . Irish pirates raided the western coast of the British Isles in a manner similar to what the Vikings were to do on the Irish island in later years. Some of these privateers established kingdoms in Scotland , Wales, and Cornwall .
Some of these may have returned home as rich men and brought the Christian faith to Ireland for the first time - sources claim that missionaries were active in Ireland long before St. Patrick's time.
It is known that in the year 432 St. Patrick landed on the Irish island and in the following years sought to convert the Irish living there to (Catholic) Christianity. On the other hand, the Pope sent Bishop Palladius as the first bishop to Ireland as early as 431 , which suggests that Christians must have already lived there. While Palladius was only active in the kingdoms of Meath and Leinster, St. Patrick was more likely to Christianize in Ulster and Connacht.
St. Patrick is credited for maintaining the tribal and social patterns of the Irish, enshrining their laws and only changing those that were incompatible with Christianity. Furthermore, St. Patrick probably introduced the Roman alphabet in Ireland, which allowed Irish monks to write down parts of the varied Irish-Celtic stories. There can be no doubt about the all-important influence of St. Patrick in Ulster, but it is considered relatively certain that there were Christians in Ireland before his time - and also pagans long after his time.
The tradition of the druids ended with the local spread of the new faith, possibly in the context of the famine and the plagues following climate change from 535 to 536 AD.Irish scholars in the newly created monastery complex gradually became pioneers of Latin and Christian studies Theology . Missionaries from Ireland traveled to England and continental Europe, and scholars from these areas traveled to Irish monasteries with the end of the Celtic Church (from 1111 AD).
Ireland had an independent Celtic church until the 12th century . The spiritual center of the country was Armagh in Ulster , but the numerous monasteries were autonomous. The fine art in these isolated monasteries helped Latin endure through the Middle Ages . The art of handwriting, illustration, metalwork and sculpture produced works of art such as the Book of Kells - one of the most important works of art from that time that is still preserved today.
literature
All works are in English.
- TF O'Rahilly: Early Irish History and Mythology. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1946, reissued in 1984.
- Francis John Byrne: Irish Kings and High Kings. Dublin 1973.
- B. Raftery: Philip's Atlas of the Celts. George Philip Limited, 2001.
- Simon James: The Atlantic Celts: Ancient People or Modern Invention? British Museum Press, 1999.
- HMSO (Ed.): Histiric Monuments of Northern Ireland Belfast, 1987, ISBN 0-337-08180-8 .