Hallstatt (archeology)

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The history of the place Hallstatt in Upper Austria's Salzkammergut is shaped by the rich salt deposits of the Hallstätter Salzberg, which is located above today's lake location in the Eastern Alps. The Hallstatt salt deposits have been proven to have existed since 1500 BC. Opened up by mining and brought great wealth to the place. In archeology , Hallstatt is particularly famous for finds from a burial ground from the older Iron Age , which gave the place its name for this epoch throughout Europe. In addition to the grave field with its extraordinarily rich grave goods, the finds from the prehistoric mines are now alsoknown worldwide, which, thanks to the preservation conditions in the salt mountain, cover an exceptionally broad spectrum.

Traces of human activity in Hallstatt

Traces of more than 7000 years of human activity in Hallstatt have so far been found mainly in the Salzberg Valley above today's location and in today's area around Lake Hallstatt . Structures from the Bronze Age , the Hallstatt Age , the Latène Age and the Roman Age are currently known . These are supplemented by documents from the high and late Middle Ages as well as modern times , which are well documented in written sources . From the Neolithic Age , the Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages, there are only a few finds so far.

On the Hallstatt Salt Mountain, mining and the systems of a meat industry are known from the Bronze Age . Mining and burial grounds are known from the Hallstatt period. A settlement on the Dammwiese, which is close to the well-known mining facilities, belongs to the Latène period. A settlement and a burial ground from the Roman imperial era were found in the valley and thus in the area of ​​today's local area . In the High Middle Ages ailing tunnels that are today some still in use, there are a little below the lower Dammwiese. So far, mining, settlement and burial site are not known together for any epoch, so that only a limited glimpse into the past is possible for each period. The history of Hallstatt has always been closely interwoven with salt mining. Since the salt obtained, unlike other commercial products, is usually completely consumed or expires at its destination, it is difficult to get an idea of ​​the trade routes and sometimes also of the specific use. It was also known to ancient people that salt can be used to preserve meat and dairy products. In addition, it was and is also used in medicine and animal husbandry . However, at all times and in a wide variety of cultures, people have found ways to replace salt, so it need not necessarily have been used that way. Using salt as a prestige object is also conceivable (see salt money ).

Neolithic Age (approx. 5500–2200 BC)

It is not clear when the first people visited the Salzbergtal. Due to the brine springs on the mountain, which then as now attracted animals with their salty water, people who hunted these animals could have stayed in the valley quite early.

Deer antler pick from Hallstatt's Salzberg valley, radiocarbon dating to 5000 BC Chr.

The oldest objects found, which prove the presence of people in the Salzbergtal and also in the area of ​​today's location, date back to the Neolithic Age . A pimple made of deer antlers, which was found in the Kaiser-Josef-Stollen in 1838 and which has since been subjected to a radio-carbon analysis , is around 7000 years old . Several stone axes were also found on the Hallstatt salt mountain and in the vicinity of the village . They date from 5000 to 2000 BC. Their number and the variety of shapes show that stone axes were regularly used on the salt mountain. Since the Salzkammergut was not yet populated at this time according to the current state of research, the early presence of people in the area of ​​today's Hallstatt could perhaps also be due to the rich salt deposits.

Bronze Age (approx. 2000–800 BC)

Mining

The first salt mining in the Hallstatt salt mountain can be traced back to 1500 BC. Prove. Traces of this Bronze Age mining have been found in the modern mining parts of the Appoldwerk, Christian von Tuschwerk and Grünerwerk.

The three previously known Bronze Age mines are shafts . In this mining process , a shaft is driven vertically into the mountain until one reaches one of the rich core salt trains that cross the Hallstatt salt mountain. The mining of the salt in these core salt trains creates mining spaces that branch off to the side of the shaft. The Hallstatt pits reached depths of over 100 m.

Reconstruction of the Bronze Age salt mining at the Christian von Tuschwerk site in Hallstatt.

In Christian von Tuschwerk it was possible to determine the minimum dimensions for a Bronze Age mining area. This room had a footprint of 50 × over 20 m and in some places was over 10 m high. As far as is known so far, in prehistoric times in Hallstatt salt was only extracted by dry mining . To do this, the miners made parallel grooves in the rock with their bronze picks, thereby loosening smaller pieces of salt. The small pieces of salt were brought to the shaft in carrying sacks via wooden stairs and then to the surface in wool sacks using ropes. One of these wooden stairs from the Bronze Age has been completely preserved in Christian von Tuschwerk. The stairs were examined dendrochronologically and could be traced back to the years 1344 and 1343 BC. To be dated. This makes it the oldest surviving wooden staircase in Europe. The step width of over 1 m allowed simultaneous use in both directions or the possibility of several people walking next to each other, as might have been necessary when carrying very heavy loads. The stairs basically consist of three elements: the two side rails, the step boards and the spacer boards, which are embedded in the side rails above and below each step board. The two side rails form the cheeks of the stairs. They consist of tree trunks with a diameter of 20 to 35 cm. A 6 cm wide and 8 cm deep longitudinal groove is worked into each of these. The step boards are simply pushed into the groove on both sides with a square pin in the cheeks.

Bronze Age stairs from the Hallstatt salt mines, dendrochronologically to 1344 and 1343 BC Dated.

This design made the staircase easy to build, transport and repair. It is one of those special developments in Bronze Age mining that is only documented in this form in Hallstatt. Since the mountain pressure threatened to damage the preserved stairs in the Christian von Tuschwerk, it was necessary to dismantle them at their place of discovery and relocate them. The stairs were comprehensively documented at the site before dismantling. Then it was dismantled into more than 60 individual parts, whereby the staircase cheeks had to be sawed due to the narrowness of the mine and the surrounding find layers. The parts were brought to the Natural History Museum in Vienna, where a comprehensive technical survey was carried out. In addition, it was again examined dendrochronologically and a computed tomography was performed. Since the stairs needed for its preservation very special climatic conditions that prevail in the Hallstatt Salt Mine, and also the public should be accessible, she was in the visitor mine in the salt mines reorganized Hallstatt. In a specially designed showroom, she has been part of the regular tours there since spring 2015. Before that, it could only be seen as part of special tours. In order to ensure a constant climate for the Bronze Age wood, a large showcase was built for the stairs, which is closed off from the visitor area by a diffusion-proof film. The climate inside the chamber is also monitored by extensive climate monitoring. In the showroom, the “Bronze Age Cinema”, a four-minute documentary film provides information on, among other things, some of the interdisciplinary research that is being carried out in the prehistoric mine. The work processes in Bronze Age mining are visualized in the form of an animation.

Due to the sophisticated technology of the company in the known pit mining areas , the Hallstatt suspect Montan archaeologists that these Bronze Age mines are not the oldest in the salt mines. This assumption is based not only on the size of the mining areas but also on Hallstatt's special developments, which can be found time and again among the work equipment found. They were precisely tailored to the needs of the Hallstatt salt mines and seem to be independent of suggestions from other mines, such as the nearby copper mine on Mitterberg. In addition to the stairs described above, these developments include carrying bags (see chapter Experimental archeology) and protective leather for the hands. The three known Bronze Age mines were founded in the 13th century BC. Bury by a rubble stream . In the Grünerwerk and Christian von Tuschwerk, the material that penetrated the cavities from the surface prevented the mountain pressure from closing the mining areas again. It is still unclear whether new mining areas were opened up elsewhere on the Salzberg immediately after this event or whether there was no professional salt extraction on the Hallstatt Salzberg until the Hallstatt period.

Meat production and alpine farming

In the Bronze Age, salt was not the only thing that the Hallstatters produced. Several wooden block buildings , which were still considered residential buildings when they were discovered in the 19th century, are now generally interpreted as systems for curing meat. The size of the facilities made it possible to process such large quantities that it seems justified to speak of a Bronze Age meat industry. Between 150 and 200 pigs could be cured with salt in one tank at the same time. By radiocarbon analysis of the wood used, the chronological classification in the 13th and 12th centuries BC. Secured. The examination of the animal bones found in the modern excavations showed that mainly pork was processed in the curing tubs. Sheep, goat and cattle bones were also found. In the bulk of the salvaged bones, which all come from animals of a narrowly limited age group, certain body parts are usually missing. Therefore, modern research assumes that only special parts of the animals slaughtered at another location were delivered to the Salzbergtal. Through experimental archeology could be proven that the air inside the tunnel is ideally suited to prosciutto to ripen. Therefore, the pieces of meat are likely to have been brought into the tunnels after curing.

settlement

A settlement belonging to these industrial plants has not yet been discovered. However, since there are finds of late Bronze Age settlement ceramics on the salt mountain and both the maintenance of the mines and the meat production required a constant presence of people on the salt mountain, it is assumed that the people who worked here also lived on the salt mountain. Based on the current state of research, it cannot be decided whether there was already a settlement on the shore of the lake at this time.

Exchange of goods and supply

Life picture of the life of people in the Bronze Age in the Hallstatt mines.

Terms such as “ industry ”, “ trade ” and “ production center ” are controversial in archaeological research . The assumption that Hallstatt could meet the criteria of a production center with almost industrial work processes in the Bronze Age is based primarily on the analysis of the equipment for salt mining and the standardization of the extensive meat processing. The Hallstatt salt was probably transported over long distances. Because the next larger salt suppliers known today were several hundred kilometers away in central and southern Germany, in Romania, in the northeast of Bosnia-Herzegovina and in eastern France. At the moment it cannot be said whether the same can be said for meat production. In general, a large mining company like the one that existed in Hallstatt at that time cannot just be a production center. The miners must be provided with food and clothing. The mines require regular supplies of resources, tools and workers. Therefore, there must have been an influx of both goods and people to Hallstatt. A precise assessment of the importance of Hallstatt for the surrounding area, general trade and especially the salt trade is not yet possible. Further knowledge about this could be gained from the burial ground and the settlement of this epoch, both of which, however, have not yet been found, as well as from modern landscape and environmental archaeological studies of the area.

Hallstatt Period (approx. 800–400 BC)

Whether salt production in Hallstatt led to wealth as early as the Bronze Age cannot yet be decided. But at the latest in the older Iron Age it formed the basis of economic prosperity.

Mining

Original bronze pick from the prehistoric mines of Hallstatt

The oldest mining in the Hallstatt period is only traceable around 300 years after the end of the Bronze Age. It is located in a completely different place on the salt mountain and also uses a different mining method. A noticeable difference to mining in the previous epoch can also be seen in the more economical use of resources . Finds from this period often show traces of repairs. In addition, many things are put to a new use after they are no longer suitable for their original purpose: Broken pick handles were used as chopping pads, for example, and traces of salt scraped together could be found on broken wooden dishes. For salt extraction, horizontal mining areas were created that followed the course of the salt veins. These mining areas could reach enormous dimensions. The best explored is over 170 m long, 5–27 m wide and up to 20 m high. Bronze pimples were still used as tools in Hallstatt during this period. To extract salt, heart-shaped grooves were made in the salt dome with a pick, the traces of which can still be seen today as negatives in the rock at the Stügerwerk site in the so-called heart chamber.

One of the heart-shaped mining figures from the Hallstatt salt mines in Hallstatt.

Starting from the middle of these "hearts", 2 salt plates per "heart" were then probably loosened from the rock. Two original panels have been preserved from the dismantling of the Hallstatt period. The smaller of the two weighs 12 kg and, judging by the negatives known today in the rock, is one of the smallest of the pieces mined back then. The larger plate obtained weighs 42 kg.

Life picture of the Hallstatt period mining in the Hallstatt salt mines.

Because of the negative, the largest of the mined salt plates is assumed to weigh well over 100 kg. So far, the Hallstatt experimental archaeologists have not yet succeeded in obtaining salt plates of this type. The ideas about the dismantling are therefore still very vague. Small pieces of salt, which obviously arose during the work process, remained in the mining rooms. The Heidengebirge from this time is therefore characterized by a high proportion of fine salt. The analyzes of the skeletons from the burial ground suggest that it was mostly women who carried the salt from the mine. One-sided wear and tear caused by carrying heavy loads were often found on their bones. From an age of about 8 years, signs of wear and tear were also found on the children's skeletons from the cemetery.

Leather shoe from the Hallstatt salt mines in Hallstatt.

Changes in the upper cervical spine suggest that the children carried heavy loads on their heads regularly. The children were probably involved in the work process at an early age. The presence of children in the mine is also suggested by findings. Preserved shoes that correspond to today's sizes 31/32 and 34/35 are an indication of this. As a result of the work of the women, there should also have been infants in the pits who had to be nursed. This assumption is supported by the discovery of a fur cap, which was intended for a forehead circumference of 41.2 cm and can therefore only come from an infant. Around the middle of the 4th century BC Salt mining in Hallstatt suddenly comes to a standstill. The mining halls at that time are almost all completely filled with material that penetrated from the surface. It is therefore assumed that a heavy flow of rubble brought mining to a standstill, which also made the valley uninhabitable for many years. A miner who was killed in this disaster was found in 1734 while mining salt in the kiln. As can be seen from the records of the salt works, his well-preserved body (see chapter Conservation conditions in the mine ) had grown completely into the mountains. The “man in the salt”, of whom it was initially unclear when he had lived, was brought down to the valley and buried in the Hallstatt cemetery. Subsequent excavations at the site of the deceased in the 1960s have shown the connection with the catastrophe in the early La Tène period and the end of mining in the Hallstatt period.

Burial ground

Inventory of grave N18 from the Hallstatt burial ground when it was found.
Inventory of grave N18 from the Hallstatt burial ground after the restoration.

The cemetery from the Hallstatt period is one of the most important archaeological remains in the world. In the graves from the period from 800 to 400 BC There are luxury goods from all over Europe, which testify to extensive contacts (see chapter Exchange of goods and supply ). A large part of the graves was already excavated in the 19th century. Since archaeological research only developed its techniques and methods in this early period, the information available about these excavations is not complete by today's standards. Johann Georg Ramsauer's notes are one of the best documentations from the early days of archeology for the Hallstatt burial ground . However, there are still gaps in knowledge even in the areas examined by him; for example, because the skeletons have not been preserved and broken clay vessels have not been recovered. Some questions can therefore only be answered if observations made during the more recent investigations in a smaller area are transferred to the entire burial ground. For example, the new excavations show that the burial ground was very densely occupied. The occupancy density for the areas of the old excavations can neither be determined from the records nor from the finds. If the number of graves in the modern excavation areas is transferred to the entire grave field, the theoretical total number of formerly about 5000 to 6000 dead buried here results.

"Ceremonial vessel" (?) Made of bronze with a handle composed of a large and a small cattle figure from the Hallstatt burial ground.

People of all ages were buried in the graves, from infants to very old men and women. Since many skeletons show signs of wear and tear, which can be traced back to strenuous physical activity, it is assumed that these people worked in the mine or in salt processing during their lifetime. During the entire time the cemetery was occupied, the dead were buried in both body and cremation graves . A third type of burial assumed by Ramsauer, partial cremation, was not observed anywhere else during the Hallstatt period. Since such graves were no longer found in the new investigations, it is now assumed that this type of burial did not exist in the area investigated by Ramsauer. Today's excavators suspect that in these cases Ramsauer and his excavation team did not succeed in correctly separating different graves that were dug at different times in the same place. The relationship between cremation and body burials in the cemetery is very balanced throughout the entire period of use. At the beginning of the use (in HaC) the number of cremations slightly outweighs, towards the end (in LtA) burials were more common in body graves . The additions in the cremation graves in Hallstatt are generally of higher value than those in the body graves. The difference is so noticeable that one can see here in the choice of the type of burial an indication of the social rank. In the case of cremation burials in the Hallstatt grave field, the so-called fire pouring predominates, while urn burials occur more frequently in other grave fields of this time.

Double comb helmet made of bronze from the Hallstatt burial ground.

In Hallstatt there are only 12 urn graves, 7 of which were found by Ramsauer and 5 by today's researchers. The grave goods contained therein were significantly less valuable than those in the fire-filled graves and corresponded to the furnishings in the body graves. Incendiary graves, where the corpse burn was preserved in a circular shape in the grave, are now interpreted as an indication of a container made of organic material such as fabric or leather. So far, however, there is no evidence of such containers. In the body burials, which are known from the Hallstatt grave field, the dead were usually buried lying on their backs with arms stretched out to the sides. A west-east orientation predominates, i. H. the head was in the west, the feet in the east. Occasionally a south-north and a north-south orientation were also found. Ramsauer's documentation contains many depictions of skeletons with irregularly angled limbs. In the new excavations, too, there were isolated postures of the dead that deviated from the stretched supine position. Often these could be traced back to shifts in the slope or similar external influences. The diverse grave goods that have been found in Hallstatt so far include numerous vessels made of different materials, artistic weapons and elaborately designed jewelry. Grave goods of such exceptional value and of such high quality as found in the graves of the Hallstatt miners are otherwise only known from the state graves of this time. In the so-called Hallstatt war graves, which date from 800 to 600 BC. BC (HaC), swords made of bronze or iron were found.

Ivory sword handle with amber inlays from the Hallstatt burial ground

A total of 20 pieces have been preserved, the most splendid among them have elaborate ivory handles. Towards the end of the Hallstatt Period from 600 to 400 BC BC (HaD) the so-called antenna daggers can be found in these graves. The handles of these daggers are often very splendidly decorated and sometimes figured out. The former extent of the ceramic additions, such as bowls and pots, can only be estimated today, as the vessels, which were often broken into many parts, were mostly not recovered during the old excavations. From the first 980 graves that were excavated under Ramsauer, only 50 vessels have survived, while around 350 vessels have been recovered from the current 101 graves of the more recent excavations. The cemetery from the Hallstatt period was still used at the beginning of the Latène period . A particularly rich grave of this time bears the designation 994. It contained a sword with an elaborately figured sword scabbard. The grave in which the sword was deposited was discovered in 1874 during the excavations by Bartholomäus Hutter (see chapter Research history - old excavations and whereabouts of the finds ). The sword was stuck in the scabbard and wrapped in cloth and placed next to the dead man's right arm. The handle end of the sword is worked out as a bird's head on both sides. The depiction on the sword scabbard is divided into four image fields by means of ribbon patterns. The largest field of view shows four armed horsemen with a group of three armed men walking in front of them. A reclining figure can be seen under the horse of the first rider, which is also interpreted as a warrior. In the smaller picture fields on both sides of the main picture you can see a wheel that is held by two people. In the area of ​​the tip of the sword, the wrestling match between two men is shown in another field. The interpretation of the representation on the scabbard from grave 994 is controversial in research. It is made more difficult by the lack of similar finds and the unknown place of manufacture of the sword. Fritz Eckart Barth interprets the two wheels shown as pars pro toto for chariots that go into battle with mounted fighters and armed foot soldiers. According to this theory, the person lying under the first horse is interpreted as a fallen foot soldier, whom the second rider helps up with his lance. The grave with the number 994 is one of the last burials that were laid in the Hallstatt cemetery.

Settlement and everyday life

A settlement from this period is not known on the Salzberg, but is assumed by the archaeologists researching in Hallstatt as well as for the previous epoch and for very similar reasons. As an additional argument, it is stated that grave fields from the Hallstatt period were usually within sight of the associated settlements.

Hallstatt-era wooden spoon with leftover food from the Hallstatt salt mines. The spoon is 62 cm long.
Human excrement from the Hallstatt period, found in the Hallstatt salt mines.

As far as the life of the miners is concerned, the finds from the mine provide information about their diet. In addition to a wooden spoon with leftovers , hazelnut shells, fruit kernels , chip boxes with leftover casein and human excrement allow conclusions to be drawn in this regard. It is assumed that cooking was carried out on site in the pit because, in addition to the wooden spoon, there were also shards of cookware and numerous burnt pieces of wood. In addition, an open fire in the mine systems was probably essential for air circulation. The fairly uniform composition of the many human excrement from the pits shows that the food mostly consisted of a pulp of barley, millet and broad beans - cooked with inferior rind-rich meat parts. Even today, a very similar porridge is one of the typical dishes of Eastern Alpine regional cuisine. The stew known today as Ritschert has changed little over a period of at least 3500 years.

Exchange of goods and supply

Glass bowl from the Hallstatt burial ground. It is likely to come from the upper Adriatic region.

Many grave goods from the burial ground come from distant production sites and testify to contacts of the Hallstatt people throughout Europe and beyond. It cannot be decided whether these items were acquired abroad or brought by strangers, whether they are to be understood as gifts to traders or mementos from the old homeland, or whether they came into the possession of the buried through robbery or as spoils of war. Therefore, the grave goods are only of limited relevance for assessing Hallstatt's role in national trade. The large extent of salt mining in the Salzbergtal suggests that Hallstatt was at least an important production center and that the salt was negotiated over long distances during this time (see chapter " Bronze Age - Exchange of Goods and Supply ").

Latène period (approx. 400 BC - 30 AD)

Whether the mining activity since the disaster in the middle of the 4th Jhs. came to a complete standstill is not yet clear. The oldest known remains of mines and settlements date back to the 2nd century BC. And are located in a more protected place on the dam meadow higher up in the Salzberg Valley. The Dammwiese is a raised bog that is just below the tree line at 1,357 m above sea level. Mudflows and debris flows do not exist there.

Burial ground

A cemetery that was part of the facilities on the Dammwiese has not yet been found. Nevertheless, graves from the Latène period are also known from Hallstatt, because the last burials in the famous Hallstatt cemetery date back to the early La Tène period (see chapter “ Hallstatt Period - Grave Field ”).

Mining

From the 2nd century BC The mines were located in the highest mining areas of the salt mountain. Modern salt mining, which systematically works its way through the mountain from top to bottom, reached this area as early as the 16th and 17th centuries. All tunnels that lead into this area of ​​the Latène period mining have now been closed again by the mountain pressure. Today, therefore, not a single one of the sites mentioned in the salt works is accessible. The records show that the Latène Age mine, with an area of ​​72,000 m² and a depth of 330 m, was probably the largest of the prehistoric mines to date. Nothing is known about the mining technology of this era. Among the few that have been preserved from these mines are the remains of a tunnel entrance with an associated mouth hole , which was discovered during an excavation in 1937 . Parts of the tunnel entrance are now exhibited in the Hallstatt Museum. In addition to a shoe, two shovels and two tool handles have been preserved on found objects.

settlement

The settlement of the Latène period is the only one that is actually documented on the salt mountain. It could be archaeologically recorded in excavations in the 1880s and the first half of the 20th century. In the humid environment of the raised bog there are good conservation conditions for organic materials , so that in addition to many wooden devices, wooden house remains have been preserved. Since the moist soil had to be drained as early as the Latène period, the settlement has numerous drainages and drainage ditches.

Roman times (15 BC - 488 AD)

The Kingdom of Noricum , which comprised large parts of what is now Austria - including the area around Hallstatt - came into being around 200 BC. It was formed by the union of 13 tribes under the leadership of the Noriker tribe . In the year 15. BC The Roman emperor Augustus made Noricum a tributary vassal state . This happened without armed conflicts by the conclusion of a contract that left the administration in the hands of the local upper class and continued to grant them extensive privileges. It was not until Emperor Claudius , who ruled from AD 41 to 54, that Noricum became a Roman province with a military occupation. During this time, many hilltop settlements were abandoned and relocated to the plain in favor of small settlements and cities based on the Roman model (see also Ambisonten ).

settlement

Larger Roman settlement remains were found in Hallstatt on the shores of the lake in the area of ​​today's cadastral community of Lahn. The settlement was probably founded towards the end of the 1st century AD and flourished in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. In view of the high quality of the finds, the site is likely to have been significant. Due to the difficult research conditions (see chapter Research Conditions - Excavation Conditions ), little is known about this settlement. During the excavations carried out by Friedrich Morton between 1925 and 1967 in the Lahn and Hallstatt-Markt, remains of stone buildings with underfloor heating and wall paintings were discovered. In the 4th century the settlement was presumably downsized, but not abandoned, as evidenced by two body graves that were dug in the rubble of demolished houses.

graveyard

7 cremation graves, which were found in 1983 about 250 m from the above-mentioned residential buildings, also date from the heyday of this settlement. They were laid out in the 2nd to 3rd century AD as small stone chambers in which the remains of the corpse burn were buried, some with rich additions.

Mining and salt trading

So far there is no evidence of Roman mining. Due to the still incomplete knowledge about the salt mountain, this does not have to mean that there was no Roman or Roman-era mining in Hallstatt. It is conceivable that these mines have not yet been found. However, it is also possible that the settlement and mine of the Latène period continued to be used in Roman times and that the Romans limited themselves to controlling the salt trade.

Migration period and subsequent epochs (488 to today)

In 488 the area around Hallstatt was evacuated by the Romanesque population by order of Odoacer . Little is known about the fortunes of the place from the following period. Few ceramic fragments and field names that go back to late Latin roots indicate that people continued to live in Hallstatt after the Romans left. Whether and, if so, how the Hallstatt salt deposit was used in the entire period from the 5th to the 13th century is completely unknown. The first reliable evidence of salt mining in Hallstatt in the following years is a document from 1311. It is related to the reorganization and nationalization of mining and the southern sector under Queen Elisabeth . In it Elisabeth granted the citizens of Hallstatt, among other things, market rights and awarded positions in the form of castle loans. The documented regulations indicate that Hallstatt salt mining was likely to have been in operation for a longer period of time at this point in time. In the late 15th century, as a result of an economic crisis, the salt mountain was leased several times to rehabilitate the state coffers. The private use of the mines had a detrimental effect on the mining facilities, which is why the leases under Maximilian I were dissolved again. From the 16th century, company audits were carried out in the salt pans , which were carried out by specialists. The result of these audits was the “Hallstätter Ordinance” in 1524, in which the auditors' comments and suggestions for improvement were published. The salt mountain was completely surveyed for the first time in 1527. A particularly decisive event in the history of Hallstatt occurred in 1750, when a fire in the town center destroyed numerous private houses as well as all government buildings and nine houses of salt merchants. Around 1900 about 250 workers were employed in the Hallstatt saltworks, most of whom came from Hallstatt and the surrounding communities. They were divided into three wage groups and worked in 8-hour shifts underground or in 12-hour shifts above ground. The miners lived in shelters on the salt mountain on weekdays. The global economic crisis in the 20s led to partial shutdowns of the salt works in Hallstatt. In 1926 the first show mine was set up in the Hallstatt salt mine . With the construction of a new tunnel, just four meters above the level of Lake Hallstatt, the everyday life of the miners at the Hallstatt saltworks changed significantly. After the new access tunnel was connected to the higher horizons in 1952, the centuries-long barracking of the miners on the salt mountain ended. In 1960, the mining operations manager, who had lived in the Rudolfsturm on the Salzberg since the 13th century , also received an official apartment in the valley. Today the salt mining in the Hallstatt salt mountain is operated by Salinen Austria AG.

Research conditions

The archaeological exploration of Hallstatt is characterized by a number of peculiarities that make it difficult, and sometimes even easier, to gain knowledge of the past.

Excavation conditions

On the one hand, excavations are only possible to a very limited extent in the area of ​​today's local area . There are hardly any open spaces in the local area on which excavations can in principle be carried out. Hallstatt has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1996 and many of the town's buildings are extensively protected . Therefore, there are only a few structural changes in Hallstatt and excavations that prepare or accompany the building are rare. For archaeological research, therefore, every building project in the local area is usually an irretrievable opportunity to expand their knowledge of the history of the site. One of the few modern excavations in the center of Hallstatt was initiated by Fritz Janu, the owner of a commercial building. Archaeological investigations were carried out between 1987 and 1994, initially in the cellar of the house and then in other small areas of the property. The excavation in the shop's basement is still freely accessible today. These excavations revealed traces of settlement from very different eras. In the Salzberg Valley, which belongs to Hallstatt and is one of the most densely and best-documented industrial landscapes in the world, researchers are also limited. Research into the surface findings in the Salzbergtal is made more difficult by mass movements that keep changing the landscape. Rock falls, landslides, debris flows and mudslides are common in Hallstatt as in other alpine areas. In prehistoric times they repeatedly led to the abandonment of mines and may also have affected settlements on the salt mountain. Finding these settlements, which Hallstatt researchers believe to have existed in the Salzbergtal for the entire prehistoric period, is made more difficult by the slipped earth masses that are still often several meters high on the old surfaces. The mass movements also offer advantages for research, especially in the mines: By penetrating underground cavities and filling them, they protect e.g. B. prehistoric mining areas against the mountain pressure and prevented them from being closed again. The original dimensions of some of the mining areas of the Bronze Age mine could thus be preserved for over 3000 years. In general, however, research into prehistoric mines is subject to similarly severe restrictions as is the case in today's local area. Because the investigation of the prehistoric tunnels and mining areas is generally only possible in those places where they are still accessible. As a rule, this only applies to the remains of prehistoric mining that are in the areas of modern salt extraction by Salinen Austria AG and are still kept open. A conceptual planning of the excavations and the setting of research priorities are therefore set narrow limits in the mountain as well as in the valley. For some areas, the researchers know from the records of the salt works, which go back several centuries, that there were traces of prehistoric mining there. Sometimes these records even allow a rough chronological classification of the archaeological remains. Since modern mining has only touched a certain part of the salt deposit so far, large parts of the Hallstatt salt mountain are still completely unexplored. There are currently no prospecting options . The Hallstatt mining archaeologists are currently working with geologists on their development.

Maintenance conditions in the mine

Textiles found in Hallstatt from the Hallstatt salt mines.

Hallstatt's special features also include the optimal conservation conditions that the salt mountain offers for organic materials. The high salt content of the environment has a bactericidal effect and prevents the existence of microorganisms. In addition, the temperature and humidity are constant. There is no UV radiation. All of these factors mean that the natural aging process of objects made of wood or leather in the mountain, for example, is interrupted. Only with the excavation does this aging process start again, so that the real age of the found objects, which are actually well over 2000 years old, is, strictly speaking, only a few days or weeks. Worldwide, such conservation conditions for archaeological evidence have only existed in two other places, namely in the salt mines of Hallein , in the Austrian state of Salzburg , and in Cher Abad in northwest Iran . Several thousand fragments of otherwise rarely found wooden tools, over 300 leather, fur and skin objects, remains of food and human excrement have been found in the prehistoric mines of Hallstatt. The prehistoric textiles from the mines are of particular importance among the Hallstatt finds . With almost 700 individual fabrics (more than 300 textile complexes) they form one of the most important collections in Europe. Their large number and good preservation make it possible to trace the development of European textile technology from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. For various reasons, scraps of fabric ended up in the salt mountain. Some come from woolen conveyor sacks, others from clothing. Particularly noticeable are those fabrics that, due to their elaborate decoration with borders or expensive coloring, seem intended for use above ground. Textile researchers therefore suspect that those could come from former pompous robes that were last used in the mine as rags. Remnants of textiles were also found in the Hallstatt burial ground. They have been preserved in mineralized form as adhesions to metal additions, such as E.g. on the sword of the Latène period from grave 994. These allow conclusions to be drawn about the thread size, direction of rotation and sometimes even pattern. The textile remains found in the graves of Hallstatt are comparable to the more elaborate pieces of fabric from the salt mines.

Research history

Old excavations and whereabouts of the finds

Views of various body graves from JG Ramsauer's excavation documentation on the Hallstatt burial ground.

Archaeological finds from Hallstatt have been known since around 1600. The first excavations began in 1824. For many years, research into the archaeological remains in Hallstatt was guaranteed exclusively by the saltworks, which is still the landowner of the affected areas. It was not until 1871 that museums financed the first excavations. To this day, Salinen Austria AG has been involved in archaeological research in Hallstatt and supports the archaeologists at the Natural History Museum in Vienna in continuation of an almost 200-year tradition, logistically and financially on a large scale. The most famous excavator in the history of Hallstatt is the salt miner Johann Georg Ramsauer . From 1846 to 1863 he carried out systematic excavations in the Salzberg Valley, during which he examined large parts of the prehistoric cemetery and uncovered a total of 980 graves. At the suggestion of a representative of the Francisco-Carolinum Museum in Linz, Ramsauer documented his investigations with extensive protocols, grave descriptions and grave field plans as well as with many watercolors on which grave facilities and types of finds were recorded. With this documentation method, Ramsauer was way ahead of his time and achieved a scientific standard that only became binding in archaeological research many years later. The finds from his excavations now form the basis of the Hallstatt collection of the Natural History Museum in Vienna. One of the most important researchers in Hallstatt is Isidor Engl, who under Ramsauer was primarily entrusted with the documentation of the grave finds and carried out excavations in the grave field from 1871 to 1877 on behalf of the Francisco-Carolinum Museum in Linz. Most of the finds were brought to the museum in Linz, which is now part of the Upper Austrian regional museums . In the following years Engl carried out investigations together with representatives of the Natural History Court Museum, today's Natural History Museum in Vienna, and from 1884 he worked for the Hallstatt Museum Association. The finds then came into the possession of the respective institutions. Among the other notable excavators in Hallstatt is - unusual for the time - also a woman: Marie Gabriele Ernestine Alexandra Duchess of Mecklenburg , née Countess von Windisch-Grätz , who in autumn 1907 in Hallstatt together with her employees 45 graves within 4 weeks exposed. The extensive collection that was created in this way was confiscated after the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy and initially handed over to the National Museum of the New Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in Ljubljana . After the confiscation was lifted in 1929, the collection of the now deceased Duchess came into the possession of her daughter Maria Antoinette, who had the same auctioned abroad. During the period of recession, sales dragged on for many years until the collection was finally acquired in several parts in 1934 by the Peabody Museum in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Even Friedrich Morton is one of the most important Hallstatt researchers. Morton was a highly educated scientist who, together with Adolf Mahr, carried out the first excavations in the Bronze Age mine at the Grünerwerk site in 1927. In 1936 and 1937 he led excavations on the Dammwiese in the Salzbergtal. The exclusively in the 1st century BC Finds from this excavation dating back to the 3rd century BC have been handed over to the Hallstatt Museum. From 1937 to 1939 he examined the north-western part of the prehistoric burial ground, where he succeeded in uncovering a further 61 burials, which date exclusively to the period between 600 and 350 BC. Dated. The finds from these excavations went to the museum in Hallstatt. It is not possible to trace the whereabouts of all the finds ever made in Hallstatt. On the one hand, due to the lack of excavation documentation from the early period, it is not always known which finds were actually recovered from the individual excavations. On the other hand, it was quite common in the 19th century to give away finds from the excavations to well-known personalities. Objects from Hallstatt therefore came to the Austrian imperial court, from where they found their way into museums and private collections around the world. Even those finds that originally came to the museums mentioned do not have to be there today. Until the 1940s, it was common for found objects to be swapped between the individual houses in order to be able to present the most diverse collections to visitors.

Modern research

Bronze Age carrying sack made from untanned cattle hide from the Hallstatt salt mines.

The first modern excavations in Hallstatt include those investigations that took place from 1960 in the prehistoric mines where the man was found in the salt. They were initially headed by Karl Kromer , the then director of the prehistoric department of the Natural History Museum (NHM) in Vienna and then taken over by Fritz Eckart Barth , who also succeeded him as department director. Since 2001 the mining archaeological research has been led by Hans Reschreiter. They focus on the Bronze Age and Hallstatt Age mining. Today's research on the grave field results from an archaeological construction supervision carried out in 1992. At that time, a canal and a pressure pipeline were built on the Salzberg, which should lead north past the Hallstatt burial ground. It turned out that, contrary to the research opinion at the time and despite excavations lasting well over 100 years, the cemetery was still not fully recorded. In 1993, the management of the excavation campaigns, which have been taking place here every year since then, was handed over to Anton Kern, today's head of the prehistoric department of the NHM. In 1995 the Prehistoric Department and Salinen Austria AG set up a branch of the Natural History Museum in Hallstatt on the Salzberg. Since 2002 this branch has been housed in the old mountain forge in the high valley. In addition to office and work rooms, which are accessible to visitors at certain times, there is also a small showroom in which current finds are exhibited during the excavations. In the branch there are also workshops for experimental archeology , which has a special place in Hallstatt research. Experimental archaeological research according to scientific criteria has been carried out directly with the excavations since the 1960s . Numerous findings on the recovered find material, for which there is often no comparison from other excavations due to the preservation conditions, are due to this archaeological method. The knowledge gained through experimental archeology can be z. B. well documented on the bronze age sacks. These bags, of which completely preserved specimens were found in the mines, have, unlike modern backpacks, only a shoulder strap and a wooden club. Experiments with exact replicas of the originals showed that the wooden club only required minimal effort to empty the sack. Furthermore, the wrapped and thus variable fastening of the shoulder strap on the carrying bag has proven to be essential for carrying comfort, as it enables individual adaptation to the user's body size. In addition to experimental archeology, the Hallstatt project includes studies of archaeobotany , archaeometallography , archaeometry , prehistoric DNA , parasitology and dendrochronology . In addition, landscape and environmental archaeological questions are dealt with. This is done in cooperation and research projects with numerous Austrian and European institutions. There is also still a lively collaboration with the Hallstatt Museum Association, which in the “Museum Hallstatt” makes original finds from the mines and the burial ground accessible to a wide audience.

Since June 2016, several core drillings have been carried out from a pontoon 20 m deep into the sediment at the bottom of the lake. The stratification of the deposits of plant parts and minerals is explored in order to get to the bottom of the history back to the Stone Age. The platform was developed in Austria, the Natural History Museum (NHM) Vienna , the University of Innsbruck and the GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (D) are carrying out the interdisciplinary project.

In 2019, further exploratory drilling was carried out using a new technique.

literature

  • Fritz Eckart Barth: On the history of the term Heidengebirge. In: Annals of the Natural History Museum in Vienna. Series a89 (1985), 1987, ISBN 3-900275-32-7 , pp. 205-224 ( PDF nhm-wien.ac.at).
  • Fritz Eckart Barth: Hallstatt salt mine, sources and excerpts from literature on the "man in salt". Hallstatt 1989.
  • Fritz Eckart Barth: Johann Georg Ramsauer and the archaeological investigations in the core drainage plant of the Hallstatt salt mine. In: The tracker. Festschrift for the 200th birthday of Johann Georg Ramsauer. 1996, 2nd edition, pp. 76-84.
  • Fritz Eckart Barth, Johann Reschreiter: New discovery of a Bronze Age wooden staircase in the Hallstatt salt mine. In: Archeology of Austria. 16/1 (2005) p. 27ff.
  • Fritz Eckart Barth, Otto Helmut Urban : News about the sword scabbard from Hallstatt. In: Scripta Praehistrorica in Honorem Biba Teržan. Dissertationes Musei Nationalis Sloveniae. Situla 44, Ljubljana 2007, pp. 391-403.
  • Fritz Eckart Barth: Supplementary remarks on the grave of the early La Tène period in Hallstatt 994. In: Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt Volume 39, 2009, Issue 4, pp. 527-538.
  • Markus Egg , Maya Hauschild, Martin Schönfelder: On the grave of the early La Tène period 994 with figuratively decorated sword scabbard from Hallstatt (Upper Austria) . In: Yearbook of the Roman-Germanic Central Museum. 53, 2006, pp. 175-216.
  • Karina Grömer, Anton Kern, Hans Reschreiter, Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer (Eds.): Monograph on Hallstatt Textiles (WORK TITLE) (planned publication in Archaeolingua 2013)
  • Karina Grömer: Prehistoric textile art in Central Europe. History of crafts and clothing before the Romans. VPA3. Vienna 2010, ISBN 978-3-902421-50-0 ( PDF nhm-wien.ac.at).
  • Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salt Empire. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2. Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-902421-26-5 .
  • Anton Kern: A new butcher knife from the Hallstatt burial ground. In: Annals of the Natural History Museum in Vienna. Series a101 (1991), 1991, ISBN 3-900275-76-9 , pp. 57-67 ( PDF nhm-wien.ac.at).
  • Anton Kern: Results and status of research in Hallstatt. In: Fines Transire. Archaeological Working Group East Bavaria / West and South Bohemia / Upper Austria. 20th meeting June 23-26, 2010 in Eschenbach id OPf. 2012, ISBN 3-89646-215-6 , pp. 411-421.
  • Kerstin Kowarik, Hans Reschreiter: Provisioning a Salt Mine. On the Infrastructure of the Bronze Age Salt Mines of Hallstatt. In: Franz Mandl, Franz Stadler: Archeology in the Alps. Everyday life and cult. Nearchos 19 (2010) pp. 105ff.
  • Doris Pany-Kucera, Hans Reschreiter, Anton Kern: Turned upside down? - Considerations on child labor and transport in the prehistoric Hallstatt salt mine. In: Communications from the Anthropological Society in Vienna. Volume 140, 2010, pp. 39-68.
  • Hans Reschreiter, Karina Grömer, Ralf Totschnik: Rich in the grave - Economical in the pit. Considerations on resource management in the Hallstatt salt mine from the Iron Age. In: Studies on the cultural history of Upper Austria, part 22 (2008) pp. 307–320.
  • Heinrich Zabehlicky, Susanne Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger: An excavation in the Roman burial ground of Hallstatt. In: Noricum-Pannoniai halomsirok. Vešprem 1990, pp. 135-148.

Web links

Commons : Hallstatt (archeology)  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Kerstin Kowarik, Hans Reschreiter: First traces . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 44f.
  2. ^ Hans Reschreiter, Kerstin Kowarik: Salt mining begins . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 50.
  3. ↑ Fritz Eckart Barth, Johann Reschreiter: New discovery of a Bronze Age wooden staircase in the Hallstatt salt mine. In: Archäologie Österreichs 16/1 (2005) p. 27ff.
  4. ↑ Details of the staircase move can be found in the staircase blog of Hallstatt Research at http://hallstatt-forschung.blogspot.co.at/
  5. ^ Hans Reschreiter, Kerstin Kowarik: Salt mining begins . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 50.
  6. ^ Fritz Eckart Barth, Hans Reschreiter, Kerstin Kowarik: From the sow to the bacon . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 78.
  7. ↑ E. Pucher: Bones reveal prehistoric ham production . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, pp. 74-76.
  8. ^ Hans Reschreiter, Kerstin Kowarik: Enigmatic Gaps . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 70.
  9. ↑ Oral information from Kerstin Kowarik, Natural History Museum Vienna, Prehistoric Department in April 2013 to the author of the first version of this article.
  10. ^ Kerstin Kowarik, Hans Reschreiter: Provisioning a Salt Mine. On the Infrastructure of the Bronze Age Salt Mines of Hallstatt . In: Franz Mandl, Franz Stadler: Archeology in the Alps. Everyday life and cult. Nearchos 19, 2010, pp. 105ff.
  11. ↑ Hans Reschreiter, Karina Grömer, Ralf Totschnik: Rich in the grave - Economical in the pit. Considerations on resource management in the Hallstatt salt mine from the Iron Age. In: Studies on the cultural history of Upper Austria, Volume 22, 2008, pp. 307–320.
  12. ↑ Hans Reschreiter, Kerstin Kowarik, D. Pany: The hearts . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 91.
  13. ↑ Doris Pany-Kucera, Hans Reschreiter, Anton Kern: Turned upside down? - Considerations on child labor and transport in the prehistoric Hallstatt salt mine. In: Mitteilungen der Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Wien (MAGW) Volume 140, 2010, p. 39
  14. ↑ Doris Pany-Kucera, Hans Reschreiter, Anton Kern: Turned upside down? - Considerations on child labor and transport in the prehistoric Hallstatt salt mine. In: Communications from the Anthropological Society in Vienna (MAGW) Volume 140, 2010, p. 55
  15. ↑ a b D. Ehret: The end of the Hallstatt period mining . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 159.
  16. ^ Fritz Eckart Barth: Hallstatt salt mine, sources and excerpts from literature on the "Man in Salt" . Hallstatt 1989.
  17. ^ Anton Kern: The new excavations of the Natural History Museum Vienna . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 121.
  18. ^ A b Anton Kern: Funeral customs . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 126.
  19. ^ Anton Kern: Funeral manners . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 129.
  20. ^ Anton Kern: On the dating of the Hallstatt burial ground . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 124.
  21. ↑ Oral information from Dr. Anton Kern, Natural History Museum Vienna, Director of the Prehistoric Department in April 2013 to the author of the first version of this article.
  22. ^ With Fritz Eckart Barth, Otto Helmut Urban: News about the sword scabbard from Hallstatt. In: Scripta Praehistrorica in Honorem Biba Teržan. Dissertationes Musei Nationalis Sloveniae. Situla 44, Ljubljana, 2007, pp. 391–403 provides an overview of the most important theories of interpretation and origin.
  23. ^ Fritz Eckart Barth, Otto Helmut Urban: News on the sword scabbard of Hallstatt. In: Scripta Praehistrorica in Honorem Biba Teržan. Dissertationes Musei Nationalis Sloveniae. Situla 44, Ljubljana, 2007, p. 391ff
  24. ^ A b Fritz Eckart Barth: Johann Georg Ramsauer and the archaeological investigations in the core drainage works of the Hallstatt salt mine. In: The tracker. Festschrift for the 200th birthday of Johann Georg Ramsauer. 1996, 2nd edition, p. 81
  25. ↑ a b Anton Kern: Stranger (s) in Hallstatt? In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 134.
  26. ↑ Hans Reschreiter, Kerstin Kowarik: The dam meadow . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 162.
  27. ^ Roman Igl: Roman traces in Hallstatt . In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 177.
  28. ^ Roman Igl: Roman traces in Hallstatt. In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 178.
  29. ↑ a b Roman Igl: Roman traces in Hallstatt. In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 179.
  30. ↑ Heinrich Zabehlicky, Susanne Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger: An excavation in the Roman period cemetery of Hallstatt . In: Noricum-Pannoniai halomsirok. Vešprem 1990, pp. 135-148.
  31. ^ Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 175.
  32. ↑ Hans Jörgen Urstöger: From 1311 to today. In: Anton Kern, Kerstin Kowarik, Andreas W. Rausch, Hans Reschreiter: Salz-Reich. 7000 years of Hallstatt. VPA 2, Vienna 2008, p. 190.
  33. ^ Verbal information from Hans Reschreiter, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Prehistoric Department in April 2013 to the author of the first version of this article.
  34. ↑ Manuscript Karina Grömer, Anton Kern, Hans Reschreiter, Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer (eds.): Monograph on Hallstatt textiles (WORK TITLE). (Planned publication in Archaeolingua 2013).
  35. ↑ http://science.orf.at/stories/2781184/ Into the Stone Age with a drill, June 20, 2016, accessed June 20, 2016.
  36. ↑ Deep into the tunnel: exploratory drilling in the Hallstatt salt mine - derStandard.at. Retrieved July 13, 2020 (Austrian German).
  37. ↑ RISE BLOG Archaeological Research Hallstatt. Retrieved July 13, 2020 .
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