Arab conquest of Egypt

Arab conquest of Egypt

date	639 to 642
place	Egypt , Libya
output	Arab victory
Territorial changes	Egypt , Cyrenaica , Tripolitania and the Fezzan conquered by the Muslims

Parties to the conflict
Eastern Roman Empire	Islamic Caliphate
Commander
Emperor Herakleios Theodorus Aretion Cyrus of Alexandria	Caliph Umar ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀs az-Zubair ibn al-Awwam Miqdad bin Al-Aswad Ubaida bin As-Samit Kharija bin Huzafa

Before the Islamic conquest of Egypt , Egypt was a province of the Eastern Roman Empire , whose capital was Constantinople . However, Egypt had already been conquered a decade before by the Persian Sassanid Empire under its king Chosrau II (616 to 629 AD). After a long, victorious campaign against the Sassanids, Emperor Herakleios was able to win back Egypt for Eastern Europe. Only ten years later, however, he lost the important province to the Islamic caliphate . Before the Arab conquest of Egypt took place as part of the Islamic expansion , the Eastern Romans had already lost the Levant to the Muslims. After that the Eastern Roman Empire was in fact no longer capable of effective resistance in its oriental provinces.

Eastern Roman Egypt

Since 30 BC BC Egypt was part of the Roman Empire . At the beginning of the 7th century it was divided into the six provinces of Aegyptus , Augustamnica I + II , Thebais I + II and Arcadia , part of the Eastern Roman Empire and was administered by an imperial administration led by a Greek- speaking upper class. This Greco-Roman elite ruled over a predominantly Coptic- speaking Egyptian population. The capitals of Eastern Roman Egypt were Alexandria, as well as ancient Memphis , which was protected by the important Babylon fortress on the east bank of the Nile . The Eastern Romans controlled and taxed the country through a series of fortresses, which were particularly concentrated in Upper Egypt .

The late antique Egypt with the Eastern Roman province division to 400. The number of provinces was later increased from four to six.

Geographical distance was not the only isolating factor between the Eastern Roman Empire and Egypt. The official Chalcedonian Christianity of the Eastern Roman state stated that Jesus Christ had two natures , one human and one divine. The Egyptian Christians, on the other hand , adhered for the most part to Monophysitism , which the Oriental churches also adhered to. Although the Council of Chalcedon had decided in favor of the Eastern Roman state in 451, Egypt remained a base of Monophysitism. Although the Chalcedonians owned the important churches z. B. were in Alexandria, the Egyptians could live their form of Christianity in their own churches like St. Michael and St. Kosmas and Damian.

Because of these religious tensions, Emperor Herakleios made every effort to reunite the two churches in the Church of Alexandria . The Monophysites, meanwhile, had their own patriarchs who could freely reside in Alexandria.

Islamic conquest of Egypt

Muslim invasion of Egypt

Pyramids of Giza

In December 639 'Amr ibn al-'As set out for Egypt with 4,000 men. Most of his soldiers belonged to the Arab tribe of the 'Ak, a third to that of the Ghafik. In addition to the Arabs, a few Greek and Persian converts to Islam marched with them. A little later, Caliph Umar ibn al-Chattab reconsidered his orders to 'Amr, since on closer inspection he considered it foolhardy to attack a large province like Egypt with only 4,000 soldiers.

The news reached 'Amr near Rafah , just before the Egyptian border. Guessing the contents of the letter, 'Amr ordered his army to speed up. 'Amr let the messenger know that he would receive the letter at the end of the day's march. The messenger accepted, not knowing the contents of the letter. The army camped for the night in Shajratein, a small valley near al-Arish that 'Amr knew was already on Egyptian territory. 'Amr then opened the letter and discussed how to proceed with his council of war. It was unanimously decided that the letter was obsolete on Egyptian soil.

When Umar received this answer, he decided to wait for the further course of the expedition and also gathered reinforcements at Medina. On the day of the festival of the sacrifice , the Muslim army marched from Shajratein to al-Arish , a small town without its own garrison. There the soldiers celebrated the festival of sacrifice.

Fall of Pelusium and Bilbeis

In late December 639 or early January 640 the Muslim army reached Pelusium , which owned an Eastern Roman garrison and was considered the gateway to Egypt. The Muslims besieged the city for months. In February 640, a storm troop under the command of Huzaifah ibn Wala finally stormed the fort and the city.

The losses suffered by the Muslims during the siege were offset by some Sinai Bedouins who had joined the Muslims in the sack of Egypt. The ease with which the Muslims took the city and the lack of Eastern Roman reinforcements is often attributed to the betrayal of Cyrus , the Melkite (i.e. Chalcedonian) patriarch of Alexandria . He is one of the authors of monotheletism .

After the fall of Pelusium, the Muslims marched on desert trails to Bilbeis , some 40 miles from Memphis , and besieged it. Bilbeis was the first eastern Roman city to offer serious resistance to the Arabs. Two Christian monks, Cyrus of Alexandria and a famous general named Aretion, came to the gates to negotiate with 'Amr ibn al-'As. Aretion had previously been the governor of Jerusalem and fled to Egypt when the city fell to the Muslims. 'Amr gave them three options: convert to Islam, or pay the jizya , or fight a fight. The defense lawyers asked for three days of consultation, after which, as at-Tabari reports, they asked for another two days. At the end of these five days, the monks and Aretion decided to fight, thereby disobeying Cyrus of Alexandria, who had decided to surrender. As a result, Cyrus went to the fortress of Babylon before the battle . During the ensuing siege, Aretion was killed. 'Amr ibn al-'As now tried to incite the Egyptians to rebel against the Eastern Romans and referred to the relationship between the two peoples through Hagar . When the Egyptians refused, the siege continued until after a month Bilbeis was on the verge of the fall. The city surrendered at the end of March 640. With the fall of the city, the Muslims were only a day's march from the Nile Delta .

Siege of Babylon

Muslim invasion route in Lower Egypt

'Amr had originally assumed an easy and quick conquest of Egypt. But the Eastern Roman outposts of Pelusium and Bilbeis had already caused losses to the Muslims. The siege of Pelusium lasted two months and that of Bilbeis an additional one. Both sieges could only represent a prelude to the siege of the most important fortress of Egypt, Babylon . More resistance was to be expected here. After the fall of Bilbeis, the Muslims marched straight to Babylon, which was roughly on the site of present-day Cairo. They reached the city around May 640. Babylon was a fortified city and was prepared for a siege. A moat had been dug in front of the city, and a strong force stood between the moat and the fortress walls. The fortress walls were about 20 m high and about three meters thick, they were crowned by numerous towers and bastions. The initial attacks by the Muslims failed. Early Islamic sources assume that the Eastern Roman armed forces were six times superior. The siege dragged on for two months, with the Eastern Romans in a more advantageous position.

Finally, 'Amr dispatched a detachment to raid the nearby town of Fayyum . The East Romans had foreseen this move and had troops guard the road to it. They also fortified the nearby town of Lahun . When the Arabs noticed that Fayyum was too heavily guarded, they turned to the Libyan desert . They then turned to Oxyrhynchus (Per-Medjed), which was conquered. The Arabs then returned to Lower Egypt along the Nile .

Reinforcements from Medina

In July 640, 'Amr Umar wrote to ask for reinforcements; but the caliph had already started sending supplies before receiving the letter, another 4,000 men. This force was made up of veterans of the Syrian campaigns . But even with these reinforcements, 'Amr was unsuccessful. In August 640 the assembly of Umar's elite corps, another 4,000 men, led by Zubair ibn al-Awam , a veteran of the Battle of Yarmuk , was completed. Umar had actually offered Zubair supreme command of the armed forces in Egypt, but Zubair had refused the offer. These reinforcements reached Babylon around September 640. The total number of Muslim forces had risen to 12,000.

Battle of Heliopolis

→ Main article : Battle of Heliopolis (640)

Heliopolis was ten miles from Babylon . The city was home to the sun temple of the pharaohs , and it was also known for its imposing buildings and schools. The Muslims were at risk of being stabbed in the back by Eastern Roman troops from Heliopolis while attacking Babylon. So 'Amr and Zubair marched with part of the army in July 640 to Heliopolis. An equestrian battle broke out near what is now the suburb of Abbaseya . As a result of the fighting, the Arabs were able to seize a fortress between what is now Abdyn and Azbakeya. The defeated Eastern Roman soldiers fled either to Babylon or Nikiû. At an unguarded section of the wall of Heliopolis, Zubair and some selected soldiers climbed the city wall and opened the city gates to the waiting Muslims. Heliopolis was conquered by the Muslims. 'Amr and Zubair then returned to Babylon.

Conquest of Fayyum and Babylon

When the news of the Arab victory at Heliopolis reached the Eastern Roman commander of Fayyum Domentianus, he fled to Abuit that night. From Abuit the garrison fled down the Nile to Nikiu without informing the population of Fayyum and Abuit that they were now on their own. When this news reached 'Amr, he ordered some troops to cross the Nile and occupy Fayyum and Abuit. The Muslims were able to conquer the entire Fayyum province without resistance.

Meanwhile the Eastern Roman garrison of Babylon had begun raids from the fortress, but these had little effect. There was a stalemate between the Muslims and the Eastern Romans at Babylon, until the Muslims surrounded the Eastern Romans on three sides in one of their attacks and inflicted heavy losses on them. The East Romans were able to withdraw into the fortress, but they were too weak for further attacks and had to enter into negotiations with the Muslims. General Theodorus moved his headquarters to the island of Rauda, ​​while Cyrus of Alexandria, called Muqawqis in Muslim sources , negotiated with the Arabs without result. Envoys were sent back and forth between Theodorus and 'Amr to arrange a face-to-face meeting between' Amr and Theodorus. But even these negotiations remained fruitless until the Muslims acted on December 20th. In a nightly raid, some selected warriors led by Zubair climbed the ramparts of the fortress and opened the gates to the Muslims. Babylon itself was conquered in April 641.

Surrender of the Thebais

On December 22nd, Cyrus of Alexandria entered into a treaty with the Muslims. In the treaty he recognized the suzerainty of the Muslims over all of Egypt, but de facto over the Thebais , and the Copts committed themselves to the Muslims to pay the jizya on the basis of two dinars per male adult. Emperor Herakleios should have formally approved the treaty, but Cyrus stipulated that the Copts would fulfill the terms of the treaty even if the emperor rejected it. Cyrus wrote to ask for official approval from Herakleius. For his part, Amr wrote a report of the treaty to Caliph Umar, asking for further instructions. Umar consented to the treaty provided that Herakleios did the same. Herakleios was angry about Cyrus's letter and dismissed him from his office, but Cyrus was still head of the Coptic Church , which the emperor could not influence. Herakleios sent orders to his generals in Egypt to drive the Muslims out of Egypt. So Cyrus informed 'Amr that the Emperor had rejected the Treaty of Babylon, but assured the Copts that the Treaty would be true to it. The clear positioning of Cyrus earned the Muslims the loyalty of the majority of all Copts. Although the treaty did not stipulate that the Copts should fight their foreign Eastern Roman masters, they now helped the Muslim conquerors by providing them with logistical and moral support. 'Amr wrote to Umar to report the latest developments. Umar thought it necessary to drive the Eastern Romans out of Egypt before they could gather new strength.

March to Alexandria

Ancient Roman Theater in Alexandria

Knowing that the Muslims' next target would be Alexandria, the Eastern Romans prepared to siege the city. Their strategy was to break their strength in numerous sieges and pinprick attacks. In this war of attrition, Muslims should be forced to withdraw through constant physical and moral losses. In February 641 'Amr set out from Babylon with his army for Alexandria. Eastern Roman troops had been left all along the route to prevent the Muslims from advancing. On the third day the vanguard met an Eastern Roman detachment near Tarnut on the west bank of the Nile . Although the Eastern Romans could not inflict heavy losses on the Muslims, they were able to delay their advance by a day. The Muslims decided to rest at Tarnut and send the vanguard ahead to clear the way. Thirty-five kilometers, the escaped Eastern Roman army group from Tarnut joined another group camped at Schareek. Together they attacked the Muslim vanguard and drove them to flight. The next day, only the arrival of the main Muslim army prevented the advance guard from being completely destroyed by the Eastern Romans, who withdrew. The Muslim commanders decided to stop sending advance detachments from now on. The next day they reached Sulteis , where another Eastern Roman garrison stood. After a short but hard fight, this regiment was also routed. The Muslims stayed in Sulteis for a day. After another day's march they reached Kirayun, about 18 km from Alexandria. Here their advance was blocked by a 20,000-strong Eastern Roman army. The Eastern Romans bet that they could either defeat Muslims in a field battle or at least reduce their numbers enough to make a siege of Alexandria impossible. The two armies met in battle, but the battle was undecided. Neither side managed to gain the upper hand for ten days before the Muslims finally launched a victorious assault. The Eastern Romans fled back to Alexandria. The way to Alexandria was now free. The Muslims reached the suburbs of Alexandria in March 641.

Conquest of Alexandria and fall of Egypt

→ Main article : Siege of Alexandria (641)

Alexandria was heavily fortified: it had three city walls and several fortresses. There was no shortage of supplies in the city. The city also had direct access to the sea, so Eastern Roman reinforcements could land every day.

'Amr realized that conquering Alexandria would be difficult. The Eastern Romans had set up catapults on the city walls with which they targeted the Muslims. 'Amr had to order his soldiers to retreat beyond the range of the catapults. Whenever the Muslims got close to the city walls, they were put to flight by a hail of shells, but they defeated every Eastern Roman attack in the open field.

Emperor Herakleios gathered a strong army in Constantinople with which he wanted to come to the aid of Alexandria from the sea. However, he died before he could leave. The troops gathered in Constantinople dispersed and no help came to Alexandria. The siege dragged on for six months. In Medina , Caliph Umar grew impatient. In a letter to 'Amr, he expressed irritation at the undue delay. He designated Ubaidah as the new commander-in-chief in Egypt; he was to launch a decisive assault on the city walls. Ubaidah's attack was successful, and Alexandria was captured in September 641 . Thousands of Eastern Romans were killed or captured. Some managed to escape on ships provided in the port. Some wealthy traders also fled across the sea.

Cyrus of Alexandria asked for peace on behalf of the Copts; the Muslims granted it. In 645 the East Romans / Byzantines temporarily recaptured the city, but it was conquered again for the Muslims by 'Amr in 646. In 654 a fleet sent by Emperor Konstans II was repulsed. This was the last Byzantine attempt to retake Alexandria.

Invasion of Nubia

The historical landscape of Nubia stretched south of Egypt. It reached from Aswan to Khartoum and from the Red Sea to the Libyan desert . The Nubians had been Christianized a few centuries ago. The capital of their empire was in Dongola . In the summer of 642 'Amr ibn al-'As sent an expedition to Nubia under the orders of his nephew' Uqbah ibn Nafi. 'Amr had ordered the campaign on its own. It was not designed as an actual invasion, but rather a demonstration of the strength of the new rulers of Egypt. The Nubians wiped out the Muslims in a guerrilla war until 'Amr ordered them to retreat.

Conquest of North Africa

Rashidun's empire at its height under the third "rightly guided" caliph Uthman ibn Affan until 654.

After the preventive campaign in Nubia , 'Amr decided to launch a campaign to secure the western border of Egypt and to displace the Eastern Romans from Cyrenaica , Tripolitania and Fezzan . In September 642, 'Amr led his troops west. After a month of march, the army reached the cities of the Pentapolis . 'Uqbah bin Nafi was sent from Burqa to go on a campaign in Fezzan. Uqbah marched to Zaweela , the capital of Fezzan. He met no resistance; all of Fezzan surrendered to the Muslims. Uqbah then returned to Burqa. In the spring of 643 the main Muslim army reached Tripoli and besieged it. The city fell after a month of siege. From there, 'Amr sent a regiment to Sabratha , about 65 km from Tripoli. The city put up little resistance and quickly agreed to the payment of the jizya. In Tripoli, 'Amr asked the caliph for permission to conquer the lands further west. But Umar, whose armies were busy conquering the Sassanid Empire , did not want to see his troops scattered in North Africa as long as the rule over Egypt was not established. The caliph therefore forbade 'Amr to advance further. 'Amr obeyed and moved back to Fustat from Tripoli .

Relationship between the population and the Muslims

To the Copts, the Muslims appeared to be quite tolerant rulers. In exchange for tribute and food for the occupation troops, the largely free practice of religion was permitted, but the carrying of weapons was prohibited. The Muslim tax system was based on older institutions. From the time of the (east) Roman rule in Egypt, the Muslims adopted the poll tax system .

Fustat, the new capital

After the fall of Alexandria, Egypt was now part of the Islamic caliphate. At the time of the conquest, Alexandria was the undisputed metropolis of the country. After the city was conquered, the former Eastern Roman palaces were occupied by Muslims. The Muslims were fascinated by the city, the "queen of cities". 'Amr wanted it to remain the capital of Muslim Egypt. He suggested this to the caliph. This refused, however, because Alexandria, as a coastal city at that time, was constantly exposed to the danger of an Eastern Roman attack at sea.

Instead, he suggested finding a central square for a new capital that was not separated from Arabia by a water barrier. According to the treaty with Cyrus of Alexandria, the property of the Egyptian Alexandrians was spared, while the Greeks were distributed as booty. Greek residents were given the choice of returning to Eastern Roman territory without their property or staying in Alexandria and paying jizya .

'Amr now looked around for a suitable location for the new capital. His choice fell on the spot where he pitched his tent during the siege of Babylon, about 400 meters from the fortress of Babylon. Since 'Amr's tent was the center of the new city, the city was called Fustat , which means tent in Arabic . The first building of the new city was later than the mosque of 'Amr ibn al-'As known mosque . As the centuries passed, Fustat grew and absorbed ancient Babylon and became the most important city in Egypt.

Umar's reforms

In order to win the Egyptians for Islamic rule, Umar set a relatively low jizya for Egypt. However , taxes increased during the late Umayyad period.

At Umar's behest, 'Amr ibn al-'As had a canal built to connect the Nile with the Red Sea ; which gave the Egyptian traders access to the markets of Arabia and Iraq . The canal was called Nahar Amir ul-Mu'mineen , meaning The Canal of the Ruler of All Believers .

'Amr proposed another project to the caliph: a canal to connect the Red Sea and the Mediterranean . Umar refused it because of security concerns, since he said that the Eastern Roman fleet could possibly gain access to Arabia. The project was not to be realized until about 1300 years later with the completion of the Suez Canal .

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 18 p. 453
2. ^ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, Oxford 1902, pp. 42–43
3. ↑ ^{a b c} Archive link ( Memento of the original from February 14, 2011 on WebCite ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
4. ^ ^{A b} Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, p. 47
5. ↑ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, pp. 51-53
6. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar.
7. ↑ Al-Kamil, pp. 451-452
8. ↑ Al-Gawzi, Al-Montazim, pp. 532-534
9. ↑ at-Tabari , History of the Kings, p. 862
10. ↑ Abū l-Makārim , The churches and monasteries of Egypt and some neighboring countries , tr.BTAEvetts, p. 168
11. ^ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt , p. 234
12. ^ Kamil Salih, Pope Benjamin the First and the Arab invasion of Egypt, p. 65
13. ^ ^{A b} Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, p. 213
14. ^ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, p. 216
15. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Chapter 19
16. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty Years of Roman Dominion
17. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty Years of Roman Dominion
18. ^ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, pp. 254-255
19. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty Years of Roman Dominion
20. ^ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, p. 258
21. ^ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, p. 263
22. ^ Alfred Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, p. 264
23. ^ Hugh Kennedy: The Great Arab Conquests. Philadelphia 2007, pp. 152f.
24. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 22
25. ^ "Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary.
26. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 22
27. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 22
28. ↑ AIAkram's Muslim Conquest of Egypt and North Africa, ISBN 978-0-19-597712-7
29. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 24
30. ^ Butler, Alfred, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty Years of Roman Dominion
31. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 22
32. ↑ http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm
33. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 22
34. ↑ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Chapter 22
35. ^ "Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary.

literature

• Alfred J. Butler: The Arab Conquest of Egypt , Oxford 1902; reissued and provided with a critical bibliography by PM Fraser, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1998, ISBN 0-19-821678-5 .
• Fred M. Donner: The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ 1981, ISBN 0-691-05327-8 .
• James Howard-Johnston : Witnesses to a World Crisis. Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century. Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-920859-3 .
• Walter E. Kaegi: Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1992, ISBN 0-521-48455-3 .
• Hugh Kennedy: The Great Arab Conquests. How the Spread of Islam changed the World we live in. Da Capo, Philadelphia PA 2007, ISBN 978-0-306-81585-0 .