James Buchanan Duke

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James Buchanan Duke

James Buchanan Duke (born December 23, 1856 in Durham , North Carolina , † October 10, 1925 in New York City ) was an American industrialist and founder of the tobacco company American Tobacco . With the introduction of mechanical cigarette production, he made a significant contribution to the development of the modern cigarette and helped it achieve worldwide success. Linked to this was the worldwide increase in tobacco consumption with its negative health consequences. JB Duke was also a co-founder of what is now Duke Energy . In 1924 he founded the non-profit Duke Endowment , which today has endowment assets of several billion US dollars and has supported social programs with a total of over 3 billion US dollars since 1925. A large part of it was given to Duke University, named after her in honor of the family .

Live and act

Washington Duke statue

Origin and parental home

James Buchanan Duke (called "Buck" by his friends) was born in North Carolina in 1856 to Washington and Artelia Roney Duke. He came from a traditional family that was active in the cultivation of tobacco and its processing. His father, Washington Duke, ran a thriving tobacco trading business in Orange County , North Carolina. James Buchanan Duke was only two years old when his mother Artelia and brother Sydney died of typhus . From then on, he was raised by his father and relatives. Buck also had an older sister, Mary Elizabeth Duke, and an older brother, Benjamin Newton Duke (called "Ben" Duke).

Childhood and adolescence

When Washington Duke was drafted towards the end of the American Civil War , Buck and his siblings Ben and Mary came to see their maternal grandparents. James Buchanan attended Harden's and Pisgah Church schools here. When his father returned after the end of the war, the family was faced with a nearly destroyed farm. Funds were scarce, and the Dukes concentrated on the only remaining asset on the farm, the tobacco leaves overlooked by looting soldiers. Washington began the tobacco trade with the construction of the railroad and the development of new tobacco varieties. The nine- and ten-year-old boys Buck and Ben actively supported their father with their hard work, while their sister Mary mainly did the household chores. A primitive woodshed served the Dukes as their first "factory". Here they processed the tobacco, packed it in jute bags labeled Pro Bono Publico , and successfully marketed their product in the eastern part of the state. Gradually the family farm became an industrial enterprise. In 1866 the Dukes produced around 6,800 kg (15,000  pounds ) of tobacco and built another factory building by makeshift repurposing of an old stable.

In addition to the hard work in the tobacco factory, Ben and Buck attended a school near Durham that was the only one in the village. In 1871 Washington sent Mary and Ben to the New Garden School in Greensboro, North Carolina, a private school that was run on Quaker principles . It was founded in 1837 and converted into Guilford College in 1888. In 1872 Buck also came to the New Garden School, but while he had previously been noted for his good school performance and his keen interest in numerology, he was little interested in literature and finished school before the semester was halfway through. He later attended Eastman Business College in Poughkeepsie , New York.

The Dukes' first tobacco factory in Durham, North Carolina, 1883. The Duke family home on the left.

The Dukes continued to produce smoking tobacco under the brand name Pro Bono Publico . At that time, the market for smoking tobacco was highly competitive and there were only limited sales opportunities. The WT Blackwell and Company was at this time with their brand Bull Brand Tobacco one of the most successful tobacco producers in the country and a pioneer in the field of branding . In 1873 W. Duke constructed a two-story building near the other two factories, and the Dukes were able to produce approximately 125,000 pounds of tobacco that year. Meanwhile, Washington had also hired a few young black workers to do the heavy handwork that Ben and Buck had previously done. The city of Durham developed in the tobacco sector, through the various factories, warehouses and the railway line, to a serious competitor for other locations. To be more competitive with Blackwell, Washington built a steam-powered factory in 1874. In 1878, W. Duke, Sons and Company was finally founded.

Even if Buck was considered a very good student, he was always more fascinated by the world of work than by college and he eventually returned to the family business. He dealt intensively with all phases of the tobacco business and soon showed skills in negotiations with tobacco growers. Although he did well in college, most of his education came from working in the family business, from growing to harvesting to marketing the finished product. James B. Duke became increasingly the driving force in the family's tobacco business and, towards the end of the 19th century, helped W. Duke, Sons and Company achieve national importance in the tobacco industry.

family

Doris Duke (right) with her first husband in 1940.

James Buchanan Duke was married twice. His first marriage to Lillian Fletcher McCredy lasted from 1904 to 1906 and remained childless. In 1907, shortly after the divorce, James married his second wife, Nanaline Holt Inman, a Georgia widow. A few years later, in 1912, Doris was born to James and Nanaline Duke's only child; James was 56 years old at birth. He died shortly before Doris' 13th birthday and bequeathed half of his fortune to her. Doris was often referred to as "the richest girl in the world" and was considered extravagant and eccentric. Though she had enormous fortunes, she did not shy away from work, and a significant portion of her fortune went to charities and foundations. Doris Duke died on October 28, 1993 in Beverly Hills .

Career

Head of the company and entry into cigarette production

James Buchanan Duke increasingly took over the management of the family business W. Duke, Sons and Company in the early 1880s and transformed the tobacco trading business from a regional company into a global player in the tobacco industry. Frustrated that he could not split the WT Blackwell dominated market, James made a landmark decision. While pipe tobacco was mainly produced under Washington Duke , W. Duke, Sons and Company began producing cigarettes in 1881. Duke got into a very promising business because the cigarette industry was booming at the time. Between 1870 and 1880, the total consumption of cigarettes in the United States had increased from 14 million to 409 million units annually, and young women factory workers rolled several thousand cigarettes by hand in the factories every day. Smoking became more and more popular and because it took a long time to make cigarettes by hand, all cigarette factories were keen to mechanize their production.

The cigarette industry had already established itself in other locations in the US, because while tobacco production took place primarily in Virginia and North Carolina , cigarettes were in larger cities, such as. B. New York City. James was particularly focused on a niche market in the tobacco business, the finished cigarette . For cigarette production, JB Duke hired 125 Russian immigrants who moved to Durham. In 1881 the company produced 9.8 million cigarettes and the first brand of cigarettes was called the Duke of Durhams .

Mechanization of cigarette production

Various cigarette making machines were developed in the early 1880s, but they were unsuccessful in the market. From 1882 James Duke worked with the young mechanic James A. Bonsack, who was convinced that cigarette production could be automated and had patented a machine for this purpose in 1881.

Machine for rolling cigarettes patented by James A. Bonsack in 1881.

In 1883 the Bonsack machine was available for rent on the market. While other producers, such as rival Richmond or the Allen & Ginter Company , refused to use the machine, JB Duke ordered two of Bonsack's machines because he had taken a liking to mechanical cigarette making. These were installed in 1884. The engineer William T. O'Brian made a modification to the machines and finally the machines were ready for use. Since James Duke supplied Bonsack with his first permanent order within the American cigarette industry, he was able to negotiate a reduction in license fees and the exclusive rights to the machine himself on this occasion. The control of Bonsack's machines and the increased productivity not only enabled the leading position in the cigarette industry, but also a reduction in production costs. They fell by more than 50 percent and continued to decrease as the machines continued to develop. James B. Duke then moved to New York and founded another factory there, which proved so successful that it supplied half of the nation's cigarette production within five years.

In this way W. Duke, Sons and Company was able to solve the supply problems that had arisen since 1885 due to regular capacity bottlenecks in production. With the machines, production increased from 9 million pieces in 1885 to 60 million pieces in 1887. In the first few years, however, new problems arose. A difficulty in mechanical production was the rapid drying of the new cigarettes, which could later be prevented by adding chemical additives. The greatest challenge, however, was to find buyers for the new perfectly rolled cigarettes, as Bonsack's machines produced 120,000 cigarettes a day, which is around a fifth of all cigarettes consumed in the USA. JB Duke therefore focused heavily on marketing and promoting his revolutionary product. He sponsored horse races, gave away cigarettes, used well-known actresses as advertising media and placed advertisements in various magazines. James did market research by examining packets of cigarettes thrown away on the street at a young age. It turned out that the New York tobacco dealers rejected the machine-made cigarettes on the grounds that they would not reach the customer. The young entrepreneur then started a marketing campaign with billboards and newspaper advertisements to advertise his cigarettes.

Cigarette picture of the former Chilean President José Manuel Balmaceda , circa 1890

The breakthrough in the public eye finally came with small pictures of famous actresses, athletes or national flags that were packed in the cigarette boxes. The first cigarette picture featured a popular singer of the time. The desire of customers to own complete series of cigarette pictures made them an important advertising medium. In 1886 Duke presented its own packaging for its cigarettes. James Buchanan Duke had to advertise aggressively and be close to the consumer if he was to be successful. In 1889 alone, he spent $ 800,000 on marketing (today's value about $ 25 million). In the same year W. Duke, Sons and Company became the largest cigarette company in the world. Buck structured his company along the lines of mass consumption and mass production and this was also his special talent. Even today he is still known for aggressively marketing his products.

American Tobacco Company founded

To compete, JB Duke reinvested large sums of his profits in advertising. Nevertheless, the so-called "tobacco wars", which were fought between the five most important cigarette producers in the USA for market power at that time, troubled the company. After there was no clear winner, the five tobacco producers cooperated and merged in 1890 to form the American Tobacco Company , of which James Buchanan Duke became president. American Tobacco at that time ruled 80 percent of the US domestic market and made about 325 million US dollars annually. During the first few years American Tobacco focused on the production of cigarettes, but James Duke's vision went beyond that. His strategy was to take control of American tobacco production and he tried to buy up or ruin as many producers as possible. Under the name Tobacco Trust, Buck led the corporate giant to dominate the cigarette market. James Buchanan Duke's corporate strategy was not limited to the United States. 1901 bought American Tobacco , the Ogden Ltd , one of the leading tobacco producer in England, and thus entered the European market. England reacted quickly and powerfully, the 13 largest tobacco producers in the country merged to form Imperial Tobacco . In 1902 the American Tobacco and the Imperial Tobacco finally negotiated an armistice and founded the British American Tobacco . As American Tobacco withdrew from the UK market and Imperial Tobacco withdrew from the American market, this new group should focus on tobacco demand in the rest of the world.

James Buchanan Duke decided that American Tobacco did not produce its own tobacco , which increased the power imbalance between farmers and traders or producers. These differences have been characteristic of the tobacco culture since the beginning and were also used by the American Tobacco Company (ATC) to impose ever lower prices on their suppliers until they were finally to sell below production costs. This finally led to the establishment of the "Dark Tobacco District Planters' Protective Association of Kentucky and Tennessee", or DTDPPA for short, on September 24, 1904, an association of tobacco farmers in order to be able to defend themselves against the overriding monopoly power of the trust. At the beginning this organization tried to force the ATC to cooperate with a boycott: All tobacco farmers should refuse to deliver their tobacco plants. In order to really force all farmers to participate in the boycott and to intimidate possible strike breakers, the Silent Brigade was formed within the DTDPPA. Since the ATC strictly refused to pay reasonable prices, the Silent Brigade, known as the Night Riders , radicalized itself and brought the Black Patch Tobacco Wars to extremes by setting fire to tobacco farms and tobacco factories . The banks involved, in turn, contributed to worsening the conflict. They refused loans to farmers belonging to the DTDPPA and there was speculation that they did so under pressure from Duke and John D. Rockefeller . Successful lawsuits against the Night Riders finally led to the end of the Black Patch Wars around 1908. In America, James' strategy to control tobacco production was very successful. In 1910, American Tobacco comprised 75 percent of the country's tobacco production and included cigarettes, snuff , chewing tobacco , smoking tobacco, and cigarillos ; only the cigar industry could not control the group.

The American Tobacco Company is broken up

A year later, in 1911, the American Tobacco Company was broken up by the US Supreme Court due to antitrust legislation . The company was accused of "preventing free trade", after which the group was divided into four major individual companies: New American Tobacco Company , Ligget and Myers , P. Lorrilard and RJ Reynolds . This was a major setback for Duke; From that point on, Duke decided to devote all of his energies to entering the electricity market.

Nevertheless, James Buchanan Duke created a universal product with his cigarettes and knew how to properly use the market. Despite the known health risks, the total consumption of cigarettes is still increasing today. His insistence on the mechanization of cigarette production, his dedication and corporate strategy, as well as his perceived reliance on marketing strategies to increase market share in total demand revolutionized the American tobacco industry and decisively shaped the history of tobacco.

Expansion of the fields of activity and social commitment

In addition to the very successful cigarette production, the Dukes founded the Southern Power Company in 1905 , later renamed Duke Power . The company was founded by Buck's older brother, Benjamin Newton Duke. He was successful in the textile industry, a sector in which the Duke family had been active since 1892. The need for low energy costs for production eventually led to the formation of the Southern Power Company . The entry into electricity production was another success. With Duke Power not only factories were supplied with electricity, but also entire communities and cities of North and South Carolina . To this day, Duke Power plays a major role in the USA. Duke also built power plants in Canada together with engineer William States Lee. The power plants on the Saguenay River in Québec were among the largest in the world back in 1923. By swapping one of the power plants for shares in the Aluminum Company of America , Duke opened up yet another line of business: aluminum.

The James B. Duke House , New York City, 2010. James B. Duke had it built in 1909–1912 and died here in 1925.

From 1915 onwards, Duke devoted himself more to supporting charitable causes, as his brother Ben, who had been in charge of this area until then, became seriously ill. With his economic experience and business acumen, Duke helped philanthropy develop sustainably in his family. In 1924, a year before his death, he established the Duke Endowment Foundation . Trinity College in particular became the main beneficiary of this foundation. A separate university, the famous Duke University, was built on the grounds of the college .

Sickness and death

James Buchanan Duke fell ill in 1925 and in September of that year his doctors diagnosed malignant anemia . At that time there was no cure for it and James Buchanan Duke died in his home in New York City on October 10, 1925 of complications from the disease; on December 23, 1925 he would have been 69 years old. He left half of his fortune to his daughter Doris Duke, and the other half went to the Duke Endowment Foundation (US $ 67 million) .

James Buchanan Duke was buried next to his father in the family mausoleum at Maplewood Cemetery, Durham. Once in the early 1930s, the Duke Chapel was completed on the site of Duke University, his remains were along with those of his father and his brother in three sarcophagi in the memorial chapel of the Church (Memorial Chapel) spent.

legacy

Duke Endowment Foundation

Washington Duke was a Methodist and his sons Buck and Ben were also lifelong loyal to the Methodist Church and the social commitment that went with it. On December 11, 1924, the Duke Endowment Foundation was founded by James Buchanan Duke, by far the wealthiest member of the Duke family, with seed capital of $ 40 million. A year later, the foundation's assets were increased to $ 67 million (roughly $ 1.4 billion in today's numbers). The aim of the foundation was and is to support the residents of North and South Carolina. Selected school, health and church programs were and are financially supported. Its main beneficiary should be Trinity College (now Duke University).

By founding the Duke Endowment , James followed the patterns of his family who had been involved in philanthropy for many years. For example, Washington helped Trinity College move to Durham and Ben was a member of the school's board of trustees.

To ensure that the foundation acted in the interests of its founder after his death, James B. Duke drafted guidelines for the administration of the foundation, the "Indenture of Trust". The Board of Trustees must adhere to these guidelines. The foundation's total assets were $ 2.8 billion in 2012. To date, Duke Endowment has distributed $ 3 billion across various programs (43% college, 33% healthcare, 12% church, and 12% childcare) .

Duke University

Duke University logo
Statue of James B. Duke in the courtyard of the west campus

James Buchanan Duke continued to pioneer Duke University , a private university in Durham , North Carolina , USA . This educational institution dates back to 1838 when it was built in the city of Trinity by Quakers and Methodists . That is why the original name was Trinity College . In 1892 it was moved to Durham.

With the establishment of the Duke Endowment Foundation in 1924, James Buchanan Duke laid the groundwork for expansion into a university. Thanks to generous financial support from the foundation, the old facilities were renovated and a new campus built. That same year, Trinity College was renamed Duke University in honor of the Duke family . There is still a department at Duke University called Trinity College of Arts and Sciences that offers undergraduate studies .

There are currently over 6,500 students and 8,100 doctoral students studying at the university. It was also voted seventh in the US News & World Report ranking for the best American university.

Duke Medicine is part of the university and includes the university health system, medical school, and nursing school. It is one of the largest clinical biometric research institutes in the USA.

Duke Farms

Former Duke Farms barn, 2012

From 1893 James Buchanan Duke dedicated himself intensively to his passion, agriculture. He acquired a 145 hectare farm on the edge of the Raritan River and expanded the property to around 890 hectares of arable land in the following years by purchasing another 40 adjacent farms. At the end of the 19th century, James Buchanan Duke gave up farming and converted the existing land into a public park, The Central Park of Somerset County . To this end, he had picnic areas and an ice rink as well as additional buildings and lakes built. With the beginning of the First World War, the park was converted back into a farm, because James Buchanan Duke wanted to support the supply of the American army.

After Duke's death, his then 15-year-old daughter Doris acquired Duke Farms from the Duke Farms Company for one US dollar in September 1927 . In the course of time she bought more neighboring farms and had houses and infrastructure of the old farms improved. In 1993 Doris Duke died, leaving most of the Duke Farms to the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation . Since 2003, large parts of Duke Farms have been open to the public again.

Duke Energy

Duke Energy Center in Charlotte , 2010

In 1905, the Dukes formed the Southern Power Company , later renamed Duke Power . In 1997 it finally merged with PanEnergy to form today's Duke Energy , an energy supply company from Charlotte, North Carolina; the largest energy holding company in the US. The company supplies around 7.2 million customers with electricity and 500,000 customers with gas. It was founded in 1900 by Dr. W. Gill Wylie, James Buchanan Duke and William States Lee . Duke Energy was designed to reduce North Carolina's dependence on agriculture and encourage industrial growth. The company offers a wide range of energy generation, it owns fossil, nuclear and water-powered power plants with a total output of 57,700 MW.

Duke Mansion

The property was built by Zebalon Taylor in 1915 and is located in Charlotte, North Carolina. In 1919 James Buchanan Duke bought the house and enlarged it three times. It served him as a residence in North Carolina. After his death the system was sold and changed hands several times. From 1957 to 1976 the house was owned by the Lineberger family. After his death, Mr. Lineberger bequeathed the property to the Duke Endowment Foundation. In 1977 the building was entered in the National Register of Historic Places and is therefore on the American list of cultural monuments.

literature

  • James Buchanan Duke, William R. Perkins: Indenture of James B. Duke Establishing the Duke Endowment: With Provisions of the Will and a Trust of Mr. Duke Supplementing the Same. Also to Address by William R. Perkins, Personal Counsel of Mr. Duke, on the Origin, Nature and Purpose of the Duke Endowment . The Duke Endowment, Charlotte, NC 1932.
  • Duncan Murrell: The Duke. In: Southern Cultures. Vol. 12, No. 2, 2006, ISSN  1068-8218 , pp. 6-29, doi: 10.1353 / scu.2006.0025 .
  • John K. Winkler: Tobacco Tycoon: The Story of James Buchanan Duke . Literary Licensing, Montana 2011, ISBN 978-1-258-05898-2 .
  • John M. Bryan: Duke University: The Campus Guide . Princeton Architectural Press, New York 2000, ISBN 1-56898-228-3 .
  • John W. Jenkins: James B. Duke: Master Builder . George H. Doran Company, New York 1927.
  • Jordan Goodman: Tobacco in History. The cultures of dependence . Routledge, London / New York 1993, ISBN 0-415-04963-6 .
  • Michael J. Birkner, John W. Quist: James Buchanan and the coming of the Civil War . University Press of Florida, Gainesville 2013, ISBN 978-0-8130-4426-2 .
  • Norman A. Cocke: A ten-year review of the work of the Duke Endowment . The Duke Endowment, Charlotte, NC 1934.
  • Watson S. Rankin: James Buchanan Duke (1856-1925); a great pattern of hard work wisdom, and benevolence . Newcomen Society in North America, New York 1952.
  • Robert F. Durden: The Dukes of Durham, 1865-1929 . Duke University Press, Durham, NC 1987, ISBN 0-8223-0743-X .
  • Robert F. Durden: Bold entrepreneur: a life of James B. Duke . Carolina Academic Press, Durham, NC 2003, ISBN 0-89089-744-1 .
  • Watson S. Rankin: James Buchanan Duke: A Great Pattern of Hard Work, Wisdom and Benevolence . Kessinger Publishing, 2011, ISBN 978-1-169-93114-5 .
  • William R. Perkins: James B. Duke, the man and his work: an address . Davidson College, Davidson, NC 1935.

Web links

Commons : James Buchanan Duke  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f William Kremer: James Buchanan Duke: Father of the Modern Cigarette . In: BBC News Magazine , 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2013.
  2. ^ The History of the Duke Endowment . In: The Duke Endownment (see under "Birth of James B. Duke"). Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Wolfgang Drescher: The most successful entrepreneurs AK . Volume 4, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-593-37819-1 , pp. 110-113.
  4. ^ The History of the Duke Endowment . In: The Duke Endownment (see under "Death of Artelia and Sydney Duke"). Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  5. ^ Robert F. Durden: The Dukes of Durham, 1865-1929 . Duke Univ. Press, Durham, NC 1987, p. 4.
  6. ^ A b Edward L. Lach: Duke, James Buchanan . American National Biography Online , 2000. Retrieved November 15, 2013.
  7. ↑ a b c d Robert F. Durden: The Dukes of Durham, 1865-1929 . Duke Univ. Press, Durham, NC 1987, pp. 11-14.
  8. ^ A b c Sydney Nathans: The Quest for Progress: The Way We Lived in North Carolina, 1870-1920 . The University of North Carolina Press, 1983, ISBN 0-8078-4104-8 , pp. 22-24.
  9. ↑ Quaker Heritage . In: At Guilford College . Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  10. ↑ a b c d e f Jordan Goodman: Tobacco in History. The cultures of dependence. Routledge, London, New York 1993. pp. 99-103.
  11. ↑ a b c d e f William E. King: James Buchanan Duke (1856-1925) . In: Duke University Libraries . Retrieved January 23, 2014.
  12. ^ A b c Robert F. Durden: Duke, James Buchanan . In: NCpedia , 1986. Retrieved January 25, 2014.
  13. ^ The History of the Duke Endowment . In: The Duke Endownment (see under "Doris Duke is Born"). Retrieved January 24, 2014.
  14. ^ A b Stephanie Mansfield: The Richest Girl in the World: The Extravagant Life and Fast Times of Doris Duke. GP Putnam's Sons, New York 1992, ISBN 978-0-399-13672-6 , p. 29.
  15. ^ Susan Soper: Doris Duke: Money, Mansions and Men - Legends and Legacies . In: Legacy.com , 2013. Retrieved October 31, 2013.
  16. ↑ a b c d e f Jordan Goodman: Tobacco in History. The cultures of dependence. Routledge, London, New York 1993. pp. 229-236.
  17. ^ Gene Borio: The Tabacco Timeline. ( Memento of April 30, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) In: Tabacco BBS , 2001. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
  18. ^ Robert F. Durden: Bold entrepreneur: a life of James B. Duke . Carolina Acad. Press, Durham, NC 2003, ISBN 0-89089-744-1 , pp. XIII-XIV.
  19. ↑ Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson and Robin M. Akert: Social Psychology . 6th edition, Pearson Studium, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-8273-7359-5 , p. 192.
  20. ^ Tracy Campbell: The Politics of Despair: Power and Resistance in the Tobacco Wars. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 2006, ISBN 978-0-8131-9130-0 , p. 22 f., P. 151 f.
  21. ↑ Steven L. Danver (Ed.): Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2010, ISBN 978-1-59884-221-0 , pp. 701 f.
  22. ↑ Edward L. Lach, Jr .: Duke, James Buchanan . In: American National Biography Online , 2000. Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  23. ↑ Christopher Gray: Streetscapes / The Duke Chateau; A Grand, Sophisticated 1912 House Crumbling Away. In: The New York Times , January 23, 1994. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
  24. ^ The History of the Duke Endowment . In: The Duke Endownment (see under "Death of James B. Duke"). Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  25. ^ The History of the Duke Endowment . In: The Duke Endownment (see "Duke Resting Place"). Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  26. ↑ a b Enriching Lives and Communities . In: The Duke Endowment . Retrieved November 6, 2013.
  27. ^ A b William E. King: Duke University: A Brief Narrative History . In: Duke University Libraries . Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  28. ^ Trinity College of Arts and Sciences at Duke University . In: Trinity College . Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  29. ^ Duke University - Summary . In: US News & World Report . Retrieved November 6, 2013.
  30. ^ National University Rankings - Ranking List . In: US News & World Report . Retrieved November 6, 2013.
  31. ↑ About us . In: Homepage Duke Medicine . Retrieved November 22, 2013.
  32. ↑ The story of Medicine at Duke . In: Duke Medicine . Retrieved November 15, 2013.
  33. ↑ a b c timeline . ( Memento from February 2, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) In: Duke Farms . Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  34. ↑ a b c Evolution . ( Memento from December 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) In: Duke Farms . Retrieved January 21, 2014.
  35. ↑ Doris Duke - short biography . In: Duke University Libraries . Retrieved November 22, 2013.
  36. ↑ a b Our Company - About us . In: Duke Energy . Retrieved November 19, 2013.
  37. ↑ Our History . In: Duke Energy . Retrieved November 19, 2013.
  38. ↑ Power plants . In: Duke Energy . Retrieved November 19, 2013.
  39. ↑ Duke Mansion of Distinction . ( Memento from February 3, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) In: The Duke Mansion .
  40. ↑ Our History . In: The Duke Mansion . Retrieved December 2, 2013.
This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on February 8, 2014 .
personal data
SURNAME Duke, James Buchanan
BRIEF DESCRIPTION American industrialist and founder of the tobacco company American Tobacco
DATE OF BIRTH December 23, 1856
PLACE OF BIRTH Durham , North Carolina
DATE OF DEATH October 10, 1925
Place of death New York City