Imperial sarcophagi

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The so-called large Ludovisi sarcophagus from the Boncompagni Ludovisi collection

The imperial sarcophagi of the Roman Empire form an important group of ancient sculpture and are important evidence of artistic creation in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The centers of production were Rome , Athens and Docimeion , with numerous sarcophagi in many other provinces were manufactured. The area of ​​activity of the sarcophagi is not limited to the Roman imperial period , because they often served as models for artists of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and also had a strong influence on the development of Western art up to the beginning of modernism .

material

The main materials used to make sarcophagi were various stones, lead , stucco appliqués and wood , rarely with bronze fittings .

The most popular of the stones was marble , although there are also rare special cases of granite and porphyry . Since there were not enough suitable marble deposits in all areas of the Roman Empire , it often had to be imported. There were three different import options:

  1. hollowed out blocks (so-called blanks); partly also tubs, which probably had protrusions for the elaboration of lion heads
  2. Semi-finished products, which were mainly used for the creation of garland sarcophagi
  3. finished sarcophagi

It is often very difficult to determine the exact origin of the marble, as the types in a quarry can vary greatly in color and size of the crystals. It is possible to assign the marble to a quarry due to the analysis of isotopes , but in some cases the determination is not reliable due to the overlapping of analysis values.

Manufacturing centers

Three centers for the production of ornate sarcophagi from the imperial era can be clearly identified. These are Rome, Athens and Docimeion. Simpler specimens, on the other hand, were often made from locally or regionally available types of stone such as limestone or sandstone.

Dokimeion

The marble from Dokimeion in Phrygia ( marmor phrygium , marmor synnadicum or marmor docimium ) (today's İscehisar ) has a slightly gray color and is relatively fine-grained. This was exported as a blank and was also used for the large group of Docimean garland, frieze, torre nova and columnar sarcophagi. Another variety comes from Dokimeion, the marble of which is light-colored and streaked with reddish veins and was mainly used for the elaboration of columnar sarcophagi.

Athens

In Athens, north-east of the city, on Mount Pentelikon , Pentelic marble ( pentelike marmaros ) was extracted, which has been shown to have been exported to Rome in the form of blocks and blanks, where it was made into sarcophagi. The Pentelic marble can be recognized by its somewhat yellowish color, whereby some layers are also streaked with greenish mica.

Rome

In Rome, the situation is a bit more complicated, as there are hardly any marble deposits in the area. A large amount of marble was imported from the quarries in the east of the empire. Some of the marble from the quarries of Carrara (Luni) in north-western Italy was brought to Rome or Ostia by ship . This lunensian marble ( marmor lunense ) is light gray, has small crystals and is often criss-crossed with broad dark gray and irregular stripes. In some provinces of the Roman Empire, local marble was mined and used to make local sarcophagi. Some of these centers were also exported to other areas of the Roman Empire and to Rome. These include above all Greek and Asia Minor centers such as: Thasos , Paros or " Cyclades ", Caria , Aphrodisias , Ephesos and Prokonnesos ("marble island " in the Propontis ( Marmara Sea )).

Examples

Provinces

In those provinces where marble was not available, the material had to be procured as a blank, semi-finished product or a finished piece. Alternatively, there was also the cheaper option of making sarcophagi from another material, for example from a regionally available material. Materials such as limestone , sandstone , tuff , travertine , basalt , granite and porphyry were ideal . Also lead coffins and bronze trays were used in special cases for burials. Often only a few remains of wooden coffins such as discoloration or coffin nails have survived . In rare cases there were also wooden sarcophagi, which were decorated with bronze fittings or stucco appliqués , or which could also be painted. Another possibility was to make sarcophagi out of baked clay , but these are rarely preserved and documented.

to form

Sarcophagi mainly come in two different forms:

  1. as an elongated, rectangular box
  2. as a tub (rarely)
  3. there are also some special cases

Rectangular form

This form is widespread throughout the Roman Empire. The sarcophagi vary greatly in size, with urban Roman specimens being on average smaller than those from Athens and Docimeion. Pieces of larger dimensions are also known in Rome from the Gaulish and Tetrarchic times. In the case of very small sarcophagi it can be assumed that they were intended for small children. Particularly small specimens, which are referred to as ostotheken ("bone boxes"), can often be found in Athens. The Ostotheken are also widespread in Asia Minor , especially in Dokimeion .

Tubs

Since the late 2nd century there were sarcophagi in Rome in the form of a tub or box with rounded sides. This form is called Leno (from the Greek "Lenos" refers to trough, tub) and is found mainly among the local copies in western Italy and Campania , and in some granite sarcophagi from Egypt .

special cases

There are few exceptional pieces among the sarcophagi. Some of these special forms are listed below:

  • "False sarcophagi":

These are plates that were used to close graves that were dug into the rock. These plates are called "loculus plates" (so-called loculi ), some of them belonging to bricked sarcophagi. Another name for these plates is "Lastra" (from the Italian "lastra" , the plate, table). Although these are not actual sarcophagi, they are similar in shape and decoration.

  • "Clinic monuments":

Klinenmonumente are grave monuments in the form of an implied bed ( kline ). Initially, only the dead person lies on the mattress. Only in the later 2nd century AD is portrayed as a married couple preferred, with the deceased being depicted with the bust of the spouse in some cases . The clinic monuments were mostly in grave buildings, niches or on already covered sarcophagi. Occasionally there are also known specimens with inserts which served as cinder urns.

  • "Chamosorie":

The Chamosorium is a sarcophagus-like recess in the rock on which a lid is placed. Widespread especially in the areas of Lycia and Cilicia .

  • Cupae (also called Cupolae ):

Cupae are grave attachments in the form of rounded lids that were placed outdoors. The name is already documented in the imperial era and comes from the Latin "cupa" (barrel, barrel, grave vault). They were mostly made from local stone and have a tabula on one of the long sides . Cupae were particularly common in central Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and western North Africa.

  • Ostotheken:

Although the Ostotheken are similar in shape to the sarcophagi, they are much smaller than them. The name Ostothek ("bone box") comes from the Greek word "ostotheke" and is often found on inscriptions in Asia Minor. In addition to Asia Minor, the Ostotheken were also extremely popular in Thessaloniki and Athens.

  • Ossuaries:

These are small containers that are restricted to Jerusalem and its surroundings and were probably used by the Jews for the second burial of bones. The name comes from the Latin "ossuary" and stands for a container that is supposed to keep the bones of the dead.

  • Ash urns:

Containers for cremated remains often took the form of a longitudinal or vertical rectangular box, but could also be worked around or vessel shape. In some provinces there were even ash urns decorated in relief. The term “ urn ” from the Latin “urna” is common nowadays, but other names such as the sarcophagus-like ash boxes are also used. Ash urns were widespread in Rome, especially from the early Imperial period to the early 2nd century.

Usually, the interior of the Roman sarcophagi is a little more rounded and there is an elevation for the head ("pillow"). Lifting bosses are often attached to the lids (especially in Asia Minor) to make them easier to lift for subsequent burials. There are also holes in some of the lids that were intended for sacrificial donations . Occasionally, several corpses were found in a sarcophagus, separated by plates.

decoration

Sarcophagi also differ in the way they are decorated, some of which also determine the shapes. The most important types are listed below:

Sarcophagi with tabula

These sarcophagi are usually provided with a table ( tabula ) on one long side, in rare cases on the side , which is usually intended for an inscription. This table usually has triangular or curved "handles" ( ansae ) and is therefore also called tabula ansata . The free areas could be decorated with further jewelry. This form is often found in the provinces of the Roman Empire, but extremely rarely in Rome.

Chest sarcophagi

These are sarcophagi with a profiled frame and are also called box sarcophagi. In Rome there are only a few examples from the 1st century AD, otherwise their distribution area is limited to Northern Italy , Thessaloniki and Asia Minor ( Bithynia , Pisidia , Lycaonia and Isauria ).

Riefelsarcophagi

Riefelsarcophagus

These sarcophagi are decorated on one or more sides with s-shaped flutes ( called strigilis ) or, in rare cases, with vertically extending fillets. Another name for this shape is Strigilis sarcophagi, the word deriving from the Latin " Strigilis " (Greek "stleggis" ) and standing for a curved scraper that athletes use to scrape their bodies after exercise. In some specimens, the long sides are completely covered by ridges. There is also often a field on the side or a field in the middle. The middle field is often divided into five, with two side fields and zones with ridges in between.

Garland sarcophagi

They are mainly decorated with garlands on the long sides, partly also on the narrow sides. A garland is a ribbon-shaped, decorative bundle consisting of sticks, leaves, flowers or fruits, which is usually wrapped with colored fabric ribbons that serve as an ornament. The garlands are often framed by figurative representations.

Frieze sarcophagi

These are sarcophagi, the long and narrow sides of which are adorned with friezes , which could mainly be executed as a relief , but also as a painting. Frieze sarcophagi occur very often in the centers of Rome, Athens and Dokimeion, but less often in the provinces.

Architectural sarcophagi ("columnar sarcophagi")

They are structured with columns , half-columns , pilasters or an alternation of these. Some copies have five intercolumns , which have arcades or an alternation of gables and arcades. There are hardly any architraves . Pieces with three intercolumns are very numerous, but copies with six or four intercolumns are extremely rare. The center is sometimes taken up by a grave portal .

There are also cases when the forms of decoration are mixed with each other. For example: chest sarcophagi with garlands, frieze sarcophagi with a tabula or an arcade in the middle, rief sarcophagus with garlands, etc.

See also

literature

Web links

Commons : Sarcophagi  - collection of images, videos and audio files