Messianic Jews

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Symbol of the messianic Jews: syncretism of menorah , star of David and ichthys

Some people of Jewish origin who believe in Jesus Christ as their Messiah , but continue to see themselves as Jews as they continue to celebrate Jewish customs, describe themselves as Messianic Jews . The ' Bible ' - for her this includes both the Old Testament (in Judaism: Tanach ) and the New Testament - forms the basis of her faith. They believe that the Bible in its entirety is inspired by God .

classification

Fusion of Judaism and Christianity: Star of David with cross ...
... and a cross with a star of David

Of the people of the Jewish faith or religious traditions who have turned to faith in Jesus Christ, the Messianic Jews are a small subgroup. For the vast majority of those who believe in Jesus of Jewish origin join a Christian church and give up their Jewish identity - for at least one or two generations. Both in the Russian Orthodox Church and in the Catholic , but above all in many Protestant denominations, there are such Christians from a Jewish-religious environment . Their number is not recorded, but must be quite large. Based on a card index kept by the National Socialists , we know from Germany alone that in 1933 there were around half a million people who were classified as “non-Aryan Christians”, as Christians of Jewish origin, according to the Nuremberg Laws .

“Messianic Jews”, on the other hand, are usually called those people of Jewish origin who gather in their own congregations and consciously try to maintain their Jewish identity. Occasionally, for various reasons, such congregations avoid calling themselves “messianic-Jewish”; at the same time there are people of the Jewish faith in Christian churches who call themselves “messianic Jews”. So the term is not used clearly, but in this article it refers to those independent communities that try to combine Jewish identity and belief in Jesus. In such communities there are also many members who do not have a Jewish religious identity; they are mostly categorized as “messianic non-Jews” in the messianic-Jewish movement. The messianic Jews are theologically close to the evangelical Christians ; many of them have been influenced in their spirituality by the Charismatic Movement . Messianic Jews differ in the forms of worship and in the festive calendar from traditional Christianity, in the basic theological content, especially when it comes to the subject of “Torah observance”.

Messianic Jews are not recognized as Jews by Jewish organizations and the Supreme Court of the State of Israel . Jews in Israel mostly do not consider messianic Jews to be Jews and largely reject them; only in exceptional cases is the opinion expressed that messianic Judaism should be recognized as a current within Judaism.

The large churches in Germany are reluctant to meet the messianic Jews, especially because of the points of contact between the messianic Jews and the topic of “ mission to the Jews ”. A final classification of the movement by the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) has not yet taken place. Messianic Judaism is seen by many evangelical churches as part of evangelical Christianity.

Religious life

Self-image

Messianic Jews see themselves as Jews and at the same time believe in Jesus of Nazareth as the divine Messiah of the Jewish people. How strongly they express their Jewish identity and belief in Jesus varies within the movement. The American Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC) z. B. defines itself as follows: “The Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC) sees messianic Judaism as a movement of Jewish congregations and groups that feel committed to Yeshua, the Messiah, and take on the responsibility of the covenant. That means to lead a Jewish life with a Jewish identity that is rooted in the Torah, finds its expression in tradition and is renewed and carried out in the various contexts of the New Covenant. "With this self-definition, the Union of Messianic-Jewish Congregations is one of the Jewish wing ”of the movement.

Many messianic Jews see their roots in the so-called Jerusalem early church , an inner-Jewish eschatological current that initially consisted exclusively of Jews or of circumcised converts or converts to Judaism who kept the Jewish commandments (“ the law ”). According to the New Testament account, the circumcised and baptized Roman centurion Cornelius and his family were accepted into the community. The church believed in the imminent approach of the final judgment and Jesus as Christ . In the discussion as to whether the messianic Jews are still Jews despite their belief in Jesus Christ (see the following subsections), they also refer to the apostolic council in Jerusalem described in Acts 15  EU . There the decision of the apostles is handed down that non-Jews who came to believe in Jesus Christ, the Gentile Christians / Christians of the nations, do not convert to Judaism and therefore do not have to keep the Jewish commandments. The early Christian community of Jesus understood itself to be deeply Jewish-Christian .

Self-labeling

Even if “messianic Jews” recognize other Christians as brothers and sisters in faith or are recognized by them, they often categorically refuse to refer to themselves exclusively as “Christians” or to allow themselves to be called “Christians”. There are various reasons for this: On the one hand, millions of Jews have been victims of persecution by people who call themselves Christians. On the other hand, messianic Jews usually prefer the Hebrew language over the Greek language - therefore translate “Christian” into “messianic”. In addition, the term “messianic Jews” expresses their conviction that they will retain their Jewish identity even after accepting the belief in Yeshua HaMashiach .

organization structure

The congregations of the messianic Jews have neither a uniform structure nor a superordinate hierarchy. Messianic Jewish groups are nonetheless in contact with one another through various networks. The most important of these networks is the International Messianic-Jewish Alliance, which acts as an umbrella organization for various national sub-alliances. Important national sub-alliances are e.g. B. the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA) or the British Messianic Jewish Alliance (BMJA). There are also various congregational associations, including the above-mentioned union of messianic-Jewish congregations . Encounters and exchange also take place through jointly supported training centers and mission organizations such as Jews for Jesus or Chosen People Ministries, also known under the name of Beit Sar Shalom. The Lausanne Consultation on Jewish Evangelism was and is also an important meeting place for messianic Jews .

Cult

Like all congregations of Jewish piety styles, the Messianic Jewish congregations also usually celebrate their main weekly worship service on Shabbat. In some communities the liturgical form of worship follows a siddur , in others it has Christian-free church features. Many congregations have established their own musical culture: Inspired by the American “worship song culture”, Messianic Jews wrote their own songs. The climax of the messianic-Jewish worship is the thoracic reading. A spatial separation of the sexes during the service does not usually take place. Wearing the kippah (skull cap) or the tallit (prayer shawl) is not uncommon, but not mandatory in most messianic communities. Messianic Jews usually celebrate the annual cycle according to a Jewish rhythm, i.e. H. the annual Jewish festivals. Especially the festivals mentioned in the Old Testament such as Passover (celebration of the liberation of Israel from slavery in Egypt), Shavuot (festival of weeks, close to Pentecost) or Sukkot (festival of tabernacles in autumn) are celebrated. Traditional Jewish rites are reinterpreted and adapted in a messianic-Jewish way.

For the common New Testament names, Messianic Jews do not use their Greek or Latin variants, but Hebrew ones. For example, they call Jesus Jeschua and Saul ( Paulus ) Sha'ul . For the Old Testament names, they mostly use the usual Christian, Greek or Latin variants. The New Testament is read in German, English or Russian editions based on a Hebrew translation of the New Testament from the Greek. Greek or Latinized names are rehebraised in these translations.

Messianic Jews usually have their boys circumcised . The baptism of a believer is largely practiced in the Movement as a believer's baptism, in which the person to be baptized is completely submerged. How often and in what context the Lord's Supper is celebrated varies. There are churches that celebrate this celebration weekly; some take up the traditions of the Jewish kiddush . Others hold the Lord's Supper monthly, others only once a year as part of the Passover festival on Nisan 14 (see Quartodecimans ).

Currents and internal disputes

The messianic Jewish movement does not present a uniform picture. Above all, different positions on the subject of “Torah observance” lead to different religious and life practices. On the side there are also disputes on the subject of “faith in Jesus”. Another area of ​​tension is the question of how strongly Christian-charismatic elements of worship and religious practice should be adopted. In addition, an international comparison shows differences between the messianic-Jewish communities.

Torah-observing directions

Torah-observing schools see it as an obligation imposed by God on Jews to keep the commandments of the Torah. Some only evaluate the Old Testament and still implementable commandments as Torah. Others also attribute authority to the Jewish religious law, Halacha . Still others develop their own messianic-Jewish halacha on the basis of the Old and New Testaments as well as the Jewish halacha. The Torah is therefore not regarded as "superseded" in the sense of a substitution theology. The representatives of this tendency partly differentiate themselves from the “unobservant” messianic Jews.

Non-observant direction

Many messianic Jews see no divinely imposed duty for themselves to keep the Torah. Still, many of them follow parts of Jewish religious practice - similar to liberal Judaism - and keep the Sabbath . Some do this in order to identify more with the Jewish people, others in order not to live offensive to the Jewish environment. Others only follow the commandments that non-Jews must also observe. This group uses Jewish traditions rather selectively. Especially this part of the Messianic Jews support evangelical Christians.

Faith in Jesus

Some Messianic Jews are critical of some Christian dogmas and beliefs (such as the Trinity ). Such representatives of the movement are sometimes not accepted as Christians by the Christian side and rejected as anti-Trinitarians .

Differences due to cultural influences

There are differences between the Messianic Jewish communities that can be traced back to the cultural context of the various communities. For many Israelis, a good part of their Jewish identity rests on the fact that they are citizens of the Jewish state, pay their taxes to that state and do military service for it. In the diaspora , i.e. H. outside the state of Israel, membership in a synagogue carries more weight to Jewish identity. As a result, Messianic Jews outside Israel integrate, on average, much more Judeo-religious traditions and customs of the synagogue into their worship and religious practice than the Messianic Jews in Israel. So wear z. For example, messianic Jews in the United States are much more likely to have kippah (head covering) and tallit (prayer shawl) in worship than in Israel. Messianic Jews from the former Soviet Union come from a non-religious cultural context. As religious institutions were suppressed in the former USSR, few of them experienced Jewish religious practice in their childhood. “Jew” was an ethnic name in the passport. After the fall of the Wall, many of them came to believe in Jesus in a Christian-Protestant setting - and only got to know Jewish religious practice after turning to the faith in Jesus. They are therefore on average more “Christian” than their American or Israeli brothers and sisters in theological terms and in the practice of practicing their religion. However, as in the movement in general, one can observe an increasing turn to Jewish religious practice. This is particularly true of course for Messianic-Jewish communities of the Russian language in the Diaspora. There are also a small number of Messianic Jewish congregations with Spanish language from the South American context and Amharic language from Ethiopia. In the case of the latter, the influences of the charismatic awakening in Ethiopia and Ethiopian Judaism - also called Beta Israel - with its very special history can be proven.

history

Syncretism from Hanukkia , Star of David and Ichthys.

There is no historical connection to the Jewish Christians of the early Jerusalem community and early Christianity. In this context, the term “Jewish Christians” serves to distinguish them from Gentile Christians . The Jewish Christians of the first centuries were Jews who saw in Jesus Christ the Messiah and believed in his resurrection . Since this group lost more and more importance from the 2nd century with the increasing early Christian mission among non-Jews and disappeared over the centuries, no tradition of Jews believing in Jesus can be established up to the present day. Messianic Jews are a relatively new movement that has its roots in the 19th century Hebrew Christian movement.

19th century

The beginnings of the Hebrew Christians are a. interwoven with the Jewish missionary organizations that emerged in the 19th century in the Anglo-Saxon and German regions. Above all, the London Society for Promoting Christianity Among the Jews , which was founded in London in 1809, should be mentioned. Groups and congregations of Jews who believed in Jesus and did not want to give up their “Hebrew” identity began to emerge in the vicinity of such organizations. In 1814, the Church on Palestine Square in London began worshiping in Hebrew. In 1845 a "Jerusalem Congregation" was founded in Hamburg . The Hebrew Christian Alliance of Great Britain was established in 1866, Jakob Freshman's First Hebrew Christian Church in New York in 1882 and the Hebrew Christian Prayer Union in London. The adoption of Jewish religious practice was widely frowned upon in these circles.

Joseph Rabinowitz (1837–1899) in Bessarabia , Kishinew , took new paths in this respect in 1884 . He founded a messianic synagogue, which now consciously stayed away from the Christian churches and emphasized the independence of the messianic movement. As a pioneer of this approach, he has already been called the “heart” of messianic Judaism. His congregation was named "Church of Israelites of the New Covenant" and was active in Romania, Hungary and Russia; the movement disintegrated in 1939 with the escalating persecution of Jews in Europe.

20th century

The Hebrew-Christian movement experienced a great boom in the first third of the 20th century. The Hebrew Christian Alliance of America was founded in 1915, the Association of Christ-Believing Jews in Budapest in 1922, the International Hebrew Christian Alliance in 1925 and the First Hebrew Christian Synagogue in Los Angeles in 1934 . In 1936 the International Hebrew Christian Alliance already had 14 national sub- alliances within Europe. But the Holocaust has robbed this movement of its strength; most of the European alliances had been extinguished by 1945. The movement gained new momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, when a young generation took over the helm in Israel and the United States of America , who now wanted to live out their Jewish identity more consciously and also integrate Jewish religious practice into their religious life. In 1975 the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America (HCAA) was renamed the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA) under the influence of the boys . Since the fall of the Iron Curtain , the movement has also spread in the states of the former Soviet Union and has been carried to Germany with the Jewish contingent refugees . Many of its members here come from the former Soviet Union.

distribution

Messianic Synagogue in Dallas , Texas

The majority of Messianic Jews live in the United States , Israel , Canada , Mexico , Argentina , the United Kingdom , Germany , South Africa , Ukraine, and Russia . The two largest centers are the United States of America and Israel. In 2016 the number of Messianic Jewish groups and congregations in the USA was estimated at around 300, in Israel around 120 and in Germany 25–40; the world's largest congregation exists in Kishinev with over 1000 members.

Situation in Germany

Since the Enlightenment there have been numerous Jews who converted to Christianity in the usual Catholic or Protestant form. But for the most part they have not formed their own churches or associations, apart from the efforts of Hebrew Christians. The movement of the Hebrew Christians in Germany lost its power with the Holocaust. The German Hebrew-Christian alliance finally entered into in the 1980s. The local messianic-Jewish movement - unlike in the USA - did not emerge from a rejuvenation of the Hebrew-Christian alliance. Rather, there have been messianic Jews in Germany since the 1990s, when the immigration of Jews from the former Soviet Union brought messianic Jews into the country. The local communities and groups live u. a. in the major cities of Berlin , Düsseldorf , Frankfurt am Main , Hamburg , Hanover , Heidelberg , Karlsruhe , Cologne , Munich and Stuttgart . Many church services preach in Russian , as almost all members of the congregations come from states of the former Soviet Union . The congregations of the messianic Jews are in contact with the Baptists and other free churches and with the German Evangelical Alliance . In March 2011, 23 scholars from Europe and Israel took part in the first European Messianic Theological Symposium in Berlin and wrote a declaration on it. Another symposium took place in 2013.

Situation in Israel

Jewish Messianic Cemetery in Haifa , Israel

In Israel since the middle of the 19th Jhs. provide evidence of Hebrew-Christian groups. As early as the 1920s, there were efforts among Jews who believed in Jesus to distance themselves from the foreign mission organizations and to found their own groups and communities with a Jewish character. The founding of the state in 1948 - and with it the end of the colonial era - gave this trend a further boost. However, the movement only got bigger in the 1960s and 1970s. In terms of numbers, it has increased sharply since the 1990s due to immigrants from the former Soviet Union. A survey was carried out between 1998 and 1999, which covered around 80 groups and congregations with around 5,000 messianic Jews. Since then the movement has continued to grow; In 2008 their number was estimated at 6,000–15,000 members. Most of them are from the former Soviet Union, the United States, Israel and Ethiopia . Some of the congregations work closely with Baptists , others with international Protestant-charismatic networks. Many of the congregations are in regular contact through a conference of messianic-Jewish community leaders. The research mentioned shows that many Messianic Jews experience discrimination because of their religious orientation.

Controversy

Jewish point of view

Judaism expects the Messiah to come in the future. It has different ideas about the nature and role of the Messiah than Christianity and does not recognize Jesus as the Messiah because he does not meet the Jewish criteria for the Messiah. According to the Jewish view, so-called messianic Jews are a special Christian community. Jews who voluntarily convert to them therefore lose their rights as Jews. This regulation is decisive for their position with regard to the State of Israel and worldwide with regard to all Jewish communities and organizations. If Jews convert to Messianic Judaism and later apply for naturalization in Israel under the Law of Return , their application will be rejected; Because of their conversion, they have lost their rights under the Return Act. The vast majority of people today who call themselves Messianic Jews are therefore, according to the Jewish understanding, Christians, also in Israel. Although they may even have Jewish roots, they recognize Jesus as God. With that they have converted to Christianity - albeit not formally. The way back to Judaism remains open to Messianic Jews and other converts, but they must seriously and absolutely renounce their faith in Jesus. Usually an immersion bath in the mikveh is also necessary. Messianic Jews are therefore not allowed to marry in Israel because, from the rabbinate's point of view, they are Christians; this applies even if both can prove their Jewish origin, because there is no civil marriage in Israel .

Many Messianic Jews are missionary active, focusing their missionary work is to pass on the faith in Jesus to Jews. In doing so, they relate the New Testament mission command ( Mt 28 : 19-20  EU ) to the Jews. That is why they are met with extremely reserved and critical views on the part of Judaism. Your missionary work among other Jews is felt by many to be offensive and disruptive. Conversions made by them are seen by some Jews as an existential threat. The rabbi Andreas Nachama criticized the mission to the Jews : "From the perspective of organized structures in Jewish Judaism excludes it from simple to believe in Jesus and to be a Jew." He speaks of "classic anti-Judaism ". The liberal Rabbi Chaim Z. Rozwaski sees an attempt to destroy Judaism at its branches and roots: “To claim that it is possible to be a ' Jew for Jesus ' damages the conscience and religious thinking in both directions, and in in this sense the movement is malicious. It is also because it leads to the destruction of the Jewish religion and the Jewish people. "

According to the Central Council of Jews in Germany, messianic Jews specifically advertise contingent refugees from Eastern Europe and take advantage of their little knowledge of Judaism .

View of the churches in Germany

Attitude of the official churches

The Protestant Church and the Roman Catholic Church in Germany represent the theology of only one way of salvation. The mission to the Jews carried out by many messianic Jews is nevertheless met with criticism in the official churches. From a Christian perspective, their religious status is unclear - according to the study Christians and Jews III by the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) in 2000. Apart from evangelical churches, parishes and organizations - also within the EKD - they are often viewed critically in the people's churches , especially in circles that cultivate Christian-Jewish dialogue . The Messianic Jews are not involved in the Christian-Jewish dialogue in Germany. A more recent publication (2016) by German theologians who are engaged in Christian-Jewish dialogue, on the other hand, advertises that encounters between the official churches and messianic Jews should take place.

A resolution of the EKD Synod on the subject of "Jews and Christians", which was taken at the conference from November 3rd to 9th, 2016 in Magdeburg, states that Christians are not called to show Jews the way to salvation and they are to lead to a change of religion. The wording shows the struggle within the EKD: No statement was made with this resolution about the missionary work of messianic Jews, since messianic Jews do not propagate a change of religion in their self-image and continue to see themselves as Jews. Messianic Jews are not mentioned in the entire resolution, which leaves an open question as to whether the EKD defines them as “Christians” or “Jews” and how the EKD consequently evaluates messianic-Jewish missionary work.

Participation of the messianic Jews in church days

After the German Evangelical Church Congress had initially forbidden groups of messianic Jews to have a stand on the “Market of Opportunities”, the Ecumenical Church Congress in Munich in 2010 granted them their own series of events for the first time, which took place in Munich's Paul Gerhardt congregation . At the German Evangelical Church Congress 2013 in Hamburg they found “church asylum” in the SELK stand . A panel discussion on messianic Judaism was offered at the 2015 Kirchentag in Stuttgart. At this podium, a Jew, a Messianic Jew and a Christian bishop discussed together.

Voices from the international context

In remembrance of the old Apostolic Council in Jerusalem, the Towards Jerusalem Council II initiative was founded in 1995 by messianic Jews and representatives from several Christian denominations in the USA . The aim of this initiative is to create an awareness that, contrary to centuries of tradition, those Jews who profess to believe in Jesus Christ should not be denied their Jewish identity by the churches.

literature

  • Shalom Ben-Chorin : Messianic Jews. Jewish Christians in Israel . In: Ders .: Theologia Judaica. Collected Essays. 2nd volume, ed. by Verena Lenzen. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1992, ISBN 3-16-145801-X , pp. 177-178 (previously in Israel Nachrichten , June 4, 1987; Jüdische Allgemeine , June 4, 1987).
  • Dan Cohn-Sherbok: Messianic Judaism. Continuum, London a. a. 2000, ISBN 0-8264-5458-5 .
  • Andreas Hornung: Messianic Jews between Church and People of Israel. Development and justification of their self-image. Brunnen, Gießen / Basel 1995, ISBN 3-7655-9397-4 . ( Text online at segne-israel.de)
  • Kai Kjaer-Hansen, Ole Chr. M. Kvarme: Messianic Jews. Jewish Christians in Israel. Verlag der Evangelischen Lutherischen Mission, Erlangen 1983, ISBN 3-87214-156-2 (previously Danish: Messianske jøder. En præsentation af de kristne jøder i Israel. Svanne, Christiansfeld 1979, ISBN 87-85190-62-4 ).
  • Ulrich Laepple (ed.): Messianic Jews - a provocation. With contributions by Richard Harvey, Peter Hirschberg, Hanna Rucksack, Sven Schönheit and Hans-Joachim Scholz. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-3055-0 .
  • Fritz May: Departure in the Holy Land. Messianic Jews in Israel. Who they are - what they want - how they are discriminated against. 2nd Edition. Schulte & Gerth, Asslar 1998, ISBN 3-89437-429-2 .
  • Stefanie Pfister: Messianic Jews in Germany. A historical and sociological study (= Dortmund contributions to theology and religious education. Volume 3). Lit, Berlin / Münster 2008, ISBN 978-3-8258-1290-4 , ( limited preview in Google book search).
  • Hanna Rucksack: Messianic Jews. History and theology of the movement in Israel , Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2014, ISBN 978-3-7887-2879-3 .
  • Martin Steiner: Between church and synagogue. Messianic Jews in Jerusalem , (= Forum Christians and Jews, edited by Reinhold Boschki et al., Vol. 18. ). Lit, Vienna / Münster 2019, ISBN 978-3-643-50909-3 .

Web links

Commons : Messianic Judaism  - Collection of Images, Videos, and Audio Files

Criticism of the mission to the Jews

Municipalities in Germany

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Hanna Rucksack: Messianic Jews. History and Theology of the Movement in Israel. Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2014, ISBN 978-3-7887-2879-3 , pp. 4-17.
  2. ↑ Stefanie Pfister: Messianic Jews in Germany imdialog.org, text from BlickPunkt.e , 01/2010, see section Messianic Jewish Articles of Faith (MJA) .
  3. ↑ Hanna Rucksack: Messianic Jews. History and Theology of the Movement in Israel. Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2014, ISBN 978-3-7887-2879-3 , pp. 4-15.
  4. ↑ Deborah Hertz: How Jews became Germans. The world of Jewish converts from the 17th to the 19th centuries . Campus Verlag, Frankfurt / New York 2010, ISBN 978-3-593-39170-0 , p. 28 .
  5. ↑ Hanna Rucksack: The phenomenon “Messianic Jews”. Jews who believe in Jesus, past and present. In: Ulrich Laepple (ed.): Messianic Jews - a provocation . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-3055-0 , pp. 16-17.
  6. ↑ Daphna Berman: Aliyah With a Cat, a Dog and Jesus haaretz.com, June 8, 2006: “In rejecting their petition, Supreme Court Justice Menachem Elon cited their belief in Jesus. 'In the last two thousand years of history ... the Jewish people have decided that messianic Jews do not belong to the Jewish nation ... and have no right to force themselves on it,' he wrote, concluding that 'those who believe in Jesus, are , in fact Christians. '”
  7. ↑ Stefanie Pfister, review of Hanna Rucksack: Messianische Juden. History and theology of the movement in Israel (2014), in: Theologische Literaturzeitung , issue 11/2016 ( online ).
  8. Jump up ↑ Hanna rucks: irritant word Judenmission . In: Ulrich Laepple (ed.): Messianic Jews - a provocation . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-3055-0 , pp. 109–113.
  9. ↑ Church Office of the EKD (ed.): Christians and Jews I-III . The studies of the Evangelical Church in Germany 1975–2000. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2002, ISBN 3-579-02374-8 , p. 169-172 .
  10. ^ Carol Harris-Shapiro: Messianic Judaism. A Rabbi's Journey Through Religious Change in America. Beacon Press, Boston 1999, ISBN 0-8070-1040-5 , p. 3: “And, while many evangelical Churches are openly supportive of Messianic Judaism, they treat it as an ethnic church squarely within evangelical Christianity, rather than as a separate entity […] ”
  11. ^ Richard Harvey: Messianic Judaism - An Insider's Perspective . In: Ulrich Laepple (ed.): Messianic Jews - a provocation . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-3055-0 , p. 29.
  12. ↑ Hanna Rucksack: Messianic Jews. History and Theology of the Movement in Israel. Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-2879-3 , p. 307.
  13. ↑ Tuvya Zaretsky: The Gospel - also for Jews. Impulses from the messianic movement. Brunnen, Basel / Gießen 2006, p. 41.
  14. ↑ a b Hanna Rucksack: The phenomenon “Messianic Jews”. Jews who believe in Jesus, past and present. In: Ulrich Laepple (ed.): Messianic Jews - a provocation . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-3055-0 , pp. 17-20.
  15. ↑ David H. Stern: Messianic Judaism . A Modern Movement With An Ancient Past. 2nd Edition. Lederer Books, Clarksville 2007, ISBN 978-1-880226-33-9 , pp. 125-187 .
  16. ↑ Hanna Rucksack: Messianic Jews. History and Theology of the Movement in Israel. Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2014, ISBN 978-3-7887-2879-3 , p. 337.
  17. ↑ Hanna Rucksack: Messianic Jews. History and Theology of the Movement in Israel. Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2014, ISBN 978-3-7887-2879-3 , pp. 468-475.
  18. ^ Dan Cohn-Sherbok: Messianic Judaism . Cassell, London / New York 2000, ISBN 0-304-70730-9 , pp. 15-37 .
  19. ^ Kai Kjaer-Hansen: Joseph Rabinowitz and the Messianic Movement . Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids 1995, ISBN 0-8028-0859-X .
  20. ^ Richard Harvey: Messianic Judaism - An Insider's Perspective . In: Ulrich Laepple (ed.): Messianic Jews - a provocation . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-3055-0 , p. 30.
  21. ^ Stefanie Pfister: Messianic Jews in Germany. A historical and religious sociological investigation. Lit Verlag, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-8258-1290-4 , p. 156.
  22. ^ Jewish-messianic theology formulate idea.de, March 7, 2011.
  23. ↑ Hanna Rucksack: Messianic Jews. History and Theology of the Movement in Israel. Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2014, ISBN 978-3-7887-2879-3 , pp. 62-306.
  24. ^ Kai Kjaer-Hansen / Bodil Skjott: Facts & Myths About the Messianic Congregations in Israel . 1999, ISSN  0792-0474 .
  25. ↑ Tim McGirk: Israel's Messianic Jews Under Attack In: Time , June 6, 2008.
  26. ↑ Kai Kjaer-Hansen, Bodil Skjott: Facts and Myths About the Messianic Congregations in Israel . 1999, ISSN  0792-0474 , p. 25 .
  27. ↑ Bentzion Kravitz: The Jewish Response to Missionaries. Handbook against Mission (PDF), section The Messiah of Judaism , pp. 15-17.
  28. ↑ Text of the Law of Return knesset.gov.il (English). See Law of Return (Amendment No. 2) 5730-1970 , Section 4A. (a): "[...] except for a person who has been a Jew and has voluntarily changed his religion."
  29. ↑ Gabriel Miller: Children of a Former Jewish Woman . Website haGalil.com . Retrieved February 19, 2011.
  30. ↑ Rabbinical Court: No Marriage of Messianic Jews in Israel. In: kath.net . September 2, 2017, accessed on July 22, 2019 : “The Rabbinical Court in Tel Aviv decided on Tuesday that Messianic Jews are not allowed to marry in the country. The reason for this is the belief that Jesus is the Messiah. Messianic Jews therefore did not belong to Judaism, but to "another religion", namely Christianity, it said in the judgment. In the specific case, the persons concerned were able to prove their Jewish origin. "
  31. ↑ Katharina Höftmann: Civil marriage in Israel: Nobody is responsible for us. In: Israel Zwischenzeilen , Ed. Gesellschaft Israel Schweiz (GIS), May 2, 2018: “In Israel there is no civil marriage, only religious marriages - a problem that has been hotly debated for years, it means that hundreds of thousands of Israeli citizens cannot marry. "
  32. ^ An action against the "mission to the Jews" on haGalil.com , July 10, 2001.
  33. ↑ Cf. Bentzion Kravitz: The Jewish answer to missionaries. Handbook against Mission (PDF).
  34. ^ Johannes Boie: On a mission trip in Berlin . In: Der Tagesspiegel, December 7, 2007.
  35. ↑ Chaim Rozwaski: "Messianisches Judentum": Poison in the chocolate candy , haGalil , undated
  36. ↑ Johannes Boie: False halo . In: Zukunft (information sheet of the Central Council of Jews in Germany), September 30, 2005 ( PDF ), p. 4.
  37. ^ University of Bonn: Theological questions and perspectives in Christian-Jewish dialogue
  38. ↑ Evangelical Church in Germany (Ed.): Christians and Jews III. Steps of renewal in relation to Judaism. A study by the Evangelical Church in Germany. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2000, p. 62.
  39. ↑ Ulrich Laepple (ed.): Messianic Jews - a provocation . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-7887-3055-0 .
  40. ^ Demonstration of the 12th Synod of the EKD at its 3rd meeting. EKD, November 9, 2016, accessed on November 22, 2016 .
  41. ↑ About Us website of the Towards Jerusalem Council II initiative .