Administration of the Dutch East Indies

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Map of the Netherlands Indies, 1893

For the administration of the Dutch East Indies , the administrative structures of this Indian island colony in the period between the end of the British occupation in 1816 and the Japanese conquest in 1941/1942 are explained. Within the colony, a distinction was made between the core area, which essentially comprised the most populous island of Java with Madura , and the "outer possessions".

A partially communalist policy was pursued, which differentiated different ethnic groups and accordingly assigned them their place in society. Chinese coolies and Javanese were also valued as plantation workers on the outer islands. Chinese and Arabs, the latter often emigrants from the Sultanate of Shihr and Mukalla , formed a class of traders. Ambonesewere considered to be particularly warlike, so they should provide at least a third to half of the common soldiers. Europeans and their equals (Japanese and non-native Christians) made up the economically dominant upper class, and numerous Germans also worked as merchants and planters. Really effective military control of the entire island Indian area was only achieved around 1900, when the other powers also regarded the region as a whole as spheres of Dutch influence. The paternalistic “ethical policy” towards the natives became a program during the tenure of Colonial Minister T.A. J. van Asch van Wijck (1901–1902).

Note: It essentially describes the conditions at the time of the greatest development of imperialism after the end of the First World War. The spelling of the place names follows that which was usual in colonial times.

In the motherland

The responsibility ( opperbestuur ) for the colonies had been with the Dutch Crown since 1816 , which was exercised by the States General and the Colonial Minister responsible for them after the constitution of the Netherlands ( grondwet ) was passed in 1848 . After 1840 it was the political goal to fight poverty in the mother country through industrialization, colonies had to serve as suppliers of raw materials and be profitable. After the budget law ( Indian comptabiliteitswet ) was promulgated , the colonial budget was controlled and legislative powers were exercised, for example in the cases of the opening of the Moluccas ports (1860), the abolition of slavery and the introduction of local self-government (1903). Certain measures (division into provinces, appointment of high officials) were reserved for the crown, i.e. the frequently changing colonial minister, which were issued in the form of decrees ( koninklijk besluit ) or instructions ( algemeene maatregel van bestuur ). Major changes within the administration required the approval of the sovereign and were promulgated in the form of a “royal decree”.

This right of the crown to intervene in the internal affairs of the colonies was restricted in the Dutch constitution of 1922. A new law on the state administration of the Dutch East Indies ( Indische staatsregeling ) was passed on June 23, 1925. According to this , an opinion of the People's Council ( Volksraad ) was obtained from the States General before a law concerning the internal affairs of the colony was passed .

Central power

The crown, represented in the colonial minister, appointed the governor general, the chief judges, members of the Indian council, officers of the rank of general, etc.

Governor General

The governor general, with his official seat in Buitenzorg , had far-reaching powers and both executive and legislative powers. He was appointed for an indefinite period by the Crown at the suggestion of the Council of Ministers, but it was customary for him to submit his resignation after five years. He had to be a Dutchman over the age of 30 and was not allowed to have any business interests in the colony. He was only subject to the instructions of the Crown. He could issue ordinances ( ordonnanties, promulgated in the Staatsblad and Javasche Courant ), in times of emergency also those whose decision was reserved for the Crown or Parliament. He was nominal commander in chief and could decide about war and peace with native princes. He was responsible for the appointment of higher officials, he overlooked the departments, he was directly responsible for the powerful secretariat ( general secretary ) under a general secretary who also overlooked personnel issues.

Advisory legislative bodies

Official seat of the Raad van Indië.

The Council of India ( Raad van Indië ) was originally a counterweight to the governor. After differences with Governor van den Bosch and finally in the constitution of 1854, he was limited to an advisory role. The appointment of the four (plus one vice-president), from 1929 six (including two natives and one lawyer), members took place at the suggestion of the governor-general, who was also ex officio chairman but rarely took part in the deliberations, by the colonial minister. Should the governor not follow the advice of the council, a decision was made in the colonial ministry, but the governor was able to act independently in the meantime. Only in the case of expulsion or exile of Europeans was he bound by the councils. In contrast to the People's Council, the College usually met in camera.

Opening of the Volksraads by Governor General van Limburg Stirum (May 18, 1918)

The Volksraad, which first met in May 1918, was created in 1916 as a further advisory body . In the first phase until 1921 it had 38 members (23 Europeans, 9 of whom were elected, 14 appointed by the governor; 10 of the 15 natives were indirectly elected). The competences were expanded somewhat by law of 1925 (in force in 1927) to include a say in the budget and the military, but the governor general was still able to override the decisions independently. From 1931 to 1942 there were 25 Europeans (10 appointed), 30 Indonesians (10 appointed; 20 elected, 2239 natives were entitled to vote in 1939) and five representatives of the "foreigners" ( vreemde oosterlingen ie mostly ethnic Chinese), three of whom were indirectly elected and two were appointed. Since 1927 , the general assembly called a twenty- person college van gedelegeerden from among its members , whose members were paid permanent salaries and who took care of day-to-day business between meetings. To the extent that officials sat in the People's Council, unlike the official members in British India, they had the right to speak out against government measures. This right was widely used. The MPs had criminal immunity. Government Agent ( gemachtigden ) attached to the - usually public - attended meetings, defended the templates of the governor.

executive

After 1816, the finances were controlled by a general director with two deputies, one of whom was responsible for state domains and property, the other for goods and trade. In 1832 there was a director for extensions and in 1854 another for public buildings. In 1855 the post of director general was abolished and the five directorates became independent departments, to which in 1871 another for justice and in 1905 one for agriculture came.

After the First World War , the following ministries existed under one director in the Weltevreden government district :
department Budget 1870 1900 budget
Domestic administration, for: provincial administration, police and gendarmerie, forced labor, land rent (property tax) in Java and Madura (as well as corresponding taxes in the external area), land surveying, private agriculture, credit system, Chinese issues (since 1908), etc. Ä. 40445 29558
School system and religious sites, for: School system (separated by ethnic group), Christian and Muslim public religious sites, foundations, public health services, ethnological research, lotteries. 6919 16625
Public buildings such as bridges, lighthouses, irrigation channels, etc. 7318 21889
Finances for: tax collection (except for land rent ), administration of the areas assigned to tax tenants (taxes on: Chinese gambling dens, bird nests, toll bridges, slaughterhouses, pepper, etc.), monopoly administration (opium, salt), taxes on alcohol. 4345 12824
Justice, appointment of judges, appointment of notaries, lawyers, interpreters, etc. Control of foreigners, naturalization (including equating “civilized” natives or Chinese with Europeans), extradition, crime statistics and control of ordinances or statutes issued at the provincial level . 3121 5330
Army , under a lieutenant general , divided into: general, infantry, artillery, pioneers, medic, general staff, topography, cavalry. 18320 25254
Navy under the commandant of the Zeemmacht. 5179 4574
General Secretariat coordinated the work of the highly centralized administration. 749 1108
total 86420 117162

The Department of Agriculture, Industry and Trade, which was spun off from the "domestic administration" , became responsible for indigenous agriculture, state plantations, coffee monopoly (until 1915), agricultural technical schools, museums, botanical and zoological institutions in 1905. The Industry and Commerce department overlooked the chambers of commerce, patent law, consuls, trade fairs, etc.

The administration of the state enterprises was responsible for: post, telegraph, telephone; state railways and trams and control of such private companies.

Even after the constitutional amendment of 1925, the College of Ministers was not a cabinet; Although the directors had to take a position before the People's Council on request, the governor general remained solely responsible.

Colonial officials

As early as 1825, a decree stipulated that no one could serve as a colonial civil servant who had not provided evidence of appropriate training. From 1842 a corresponding course was prescribed at the Royal Academy of Delft, in which Malay , Javanese , Islamic law etc. were taught. However, the number of graduates was not enough to fill all positions. The decree of September 10, 1864 reorganized the training. Now the “big candidate exam” ( Groot-ambtenaars-examen ), which could be repeated as often as required, had to be passed. In the multi-year preparatory courses held in Batavia (at the Willem III high school), Leiden (1864–91, technical school) and Delft ( Indian Instelling 1864–1900, urban), one learned a third language besides Malay and Javanese Geography, ethnology and administration of the colony. The Colonial Ministry announced how many vacancies were to be filled before the examination. From 1893 a distinction was made between different careers. For positions with salaries of up to 150  florins , a high school diploma was sufficient. Lawyers with proven knowledge of Islamic law have not had to take the exam since 1876. After the turn of the century, the system was reformed so that after an entrance examination, to which candidates with university degrees were preferred, a one-year preparatory course followed. Compared to their British counterparts in India, the officials received salaries two to three times higher.

Public finances

First there was the system of taxation that already existed in the days of the VOC , which had been made more efficient during the occupation by Lord Minto and Sir Stamford Raffles . In the directly controlled areas, leases were collected from the local farmers: in each village, the chief had to see to it that an amount of money was delivered that corresponded to two fifths of the value of the local rice harvest. Governor General Johannes van den Bosch arranged for a new system to be introduced around 1830-2, the cultuurstelsel. Instead of just paying rent, farmers now had to make a fifth of their land available to grow crops specified by the government , mostly indigo , tea or sugar, and to deliver them at a certain price set by the government. This system also included the fact that they performed compulsory service ( army service ) for up to 60 days a year (limited from 1870). The products were sold in Europe, the profits ( batige sloten ) flowed only to the mother country until 1877. This reorganization, which squeezed 2 billion fl. From the people in the first 12 years, brought the mother country already in the first years surpluses of 30 million fl. P. a., enough to pay the debts accrued during the Belgian Civil War (peace was only concluded in 1839).

budget

The budget was drawn up in two parts. One part from the colonial ministry, which shows the expenses incurred in the mother country (pensions, costs of the ministry, transport, etc.), the other part in Batavia for the expenses in the colony itself. This budget has been submitted to parliament since 1867. After the end of the financial year, a statement of the actual expenditure was drawn up and forwarded to Parliament for information. These accounts were delayed by up to 20 years in the late 19th century; after 1900, they were submitted about three years late. Since around 1870 up to 40-50% of the state revenues on the revenues of the state enterprises and these plantations in turn strongly depended on the world market prices of the exported raw materials, short-term deficits often arose - increasingly from 1880 onwards. These were financed by the Colonial Ministry through bonds. The total expenditure in 1914 reached 28.4 million, which contrasted with income of only 22.9 million florins. Until the Great Depression , the debt of the colony remained low.

taxation

Forced laborers in Lewapahu

The share of tax revenue in the budget was comparatively low around 1875 at 20%; otherwise, the financing came from customs duties, monopolies and the revenue of state-owned companies. Until 1920 the tax share increased, u. a. by abolishing the monopoly to around 40%. The most important direct tax was the land-rent introduced by Raffles , a tax levied on the harvest of the natives. Other developed land was subject to the ponding (¾% of the market value). A tax on non-agricultural incomes of natives and Chinese traders in Java ( Lasting of het bedrijf op Java en Madura, 2% for natives, 4% Chinese, at least 2 gulden) was also introduced by Raffles and later extended to the outside estates. Employed or freelance Europeans and Asians were subject to a 2% income tax and, since 1879, the personeele burdening: 5% of their rent, plus taxes on horse and cart. Various other taxes were levied at the local level. After the cultuurstelsel was restricted , forced labor continued to be performed. With head taxes (1920: 1-2½ florins) one could buy oneself out of this service. Around 1920, depending on the region, natives had to work between 3 and 22 days of labor, mostly building roads and canals. The working day could not exceed 12 hours.

Customs duties and excises

The Dutch East Indies did not form a uniform customs area, different tariffs could be levied depending on the port. According to the law of 1872, which ended the preference for Dutch goods without any preferential treatment for certain countries of origin, these were usually 6-12% ad valorem. In 1905, customs duties were levied on imports of 10.2 million florins and 1.45 million on exports. In domestic traffic, alcoholic beverages and goods subject to monopoly administration were taxed. Indirect taxes were levied on matches ( accijns op de lucifers ), gasoline (from 1913) and foreign tobacco , among other things . In addition, there were stamp duties ( zegelrecht ) of various kinds. Chinese theater performances in Batavia were subject to a special tax ( Wajangverbinding ).

Monopolies

In addition to the mercantilist monopolies that had been taken over from the VOC, tobacco, tea and sugar were added as part of the forced cultivation from 1830, which were gradually dissolved in the second half of the 19th century. The last to fall in 1915 was the coffee-growing monopoly, the operation of which was mostly leased. The profit margin was between 90 and 100% at the turn of the century. There were others:

Salt: The salt monopoly existed in Java and in two residences in Borneo. Salt extraction was forbidden there, but imports were permitted without restrictions. The sale took place through state-controlled warehouses. In 1905 the income was 11.9 million. Some princes operated their own salt monopolies.

Opium shop in Ubud (1908)

Opium ( opium control ): After the VOC had obtained a monopoly on imports of substances and opium in the Kingdom of Mataram in 1677, the amount of Bengali opium traded rose from 250 kg to 27 tons in the first year . Around 1808 the opinion prevailed that the consumption of opium was something negative, so it was taxed. The tax was collected from Chinese tax farmers. In 1854 consumption in Java was 30 t, six years later it was 65.1 t.

In the Netherlands, Puritan forces had been demanding an opium ban since 1890, but this could not be enforced in view of the large number of users in the colony. Instead, from 1893, registration and later licensing (introduced 1898–1914) of opium smokers were required. With the license it was permitted to buy a limited amount of opium in monopoly shops once a day. The comparatively high price and the standardized good quality ( tjandu, 11-13% morphine) were kept constant. No shops have been set up in strictly Muslim areas of the outlying estates. In 1905 the monopoly yielded a profit of over 12 million florins, which corresponded to around 8% of the state's revenue.

After the First World War, licensing became increasingly strict. However, when the illegal use and the use of the cheaper morphine and heroin increased, the regulations were relaxed in 1927. When, in the first years of the global economic crisis, the available purchasing power per capita fell by two thirds, which was accompanied by a correspondingly lower consumption, the price was also reduced in 1935.

State enterprises and domains

The state-owned enterprises contributed a substantial, albeit steadily decreasing share in the 20th century (1880: approx. 40%, 1920: approx. 20%) to the state revenue. This also includes the proceeds, the leased state forests (1903: 2.3 million), the lands that were leased for 75 years (1903: 650,000 florins), as well as the forcibly cultivated products of local farmers in Europe profits made. The China barks -Anbau threw, after deduction for demand in the colony, 1903 70.000 fl. From.

The most important state-owned enterprises, besides the (leased) plantations, included the tin mines of Bangka , the extraction of teak and other tropical timber on Java and the coal mines of Ombilin on Sumatra. In 1903 the pawn shops, so far mostly in Chinese hands, were nationalized (profit in 1905: 1.4 million florins). The state railroad on Java was highly profitable. The unreliable mail is mostly in a minor deficit. The Dutch East Indies remained a pure exporter of raw materials until the Great Depression in 1929, and it was only in the next few years that attempts were made to establish a domestic manufacturing industry.

Local administration

The type and scope of the local administrations varied greatly from region to region. In the constitution of 1854 the natives had been assured that they would continue to be ruled largely by their princes in the outer possessions. The economically most important island of Java (except Solo and Jogjakarta ) as well as Madura , Bali , Lombok were under direct control . The residences Menado (on Celebes, today Sulawesi ), on Sumatra Bencoolen (today: Benkulu , British until 1825), as well as the west coast of this island and the Lampongs , the South Moluccas , the southern part of Dutch New Guinea (today: West New Guinea ). As early as 1909-14, a new division of the provinces ( west ), each under a governor, was planned. It was not until the late 1920s that the more developed parts of the country began to be reorganized, where separate councils with limited rights of co-determination were to be established.

The directly controlled areas (provinces) were subordinate to a governor or resident responsible to the governor-general (so called in Java), referred to as Hoofden van Gewestelyke Bestuur in the external estates , who also received instructions from the relevant ministries. The responsibilities were regulated by an ordinance of 1867, which was later changed several times. The governors appointed the lower ranks of the civil service for their districts, they were chiefs of the police and militia, and in some cases they also controlled state-owned companies. They could issue local ordinances and statutes. Europeans were directly subordinate to these authorities.

Administrative division 1920:

  • were under a governor:
    • Achin (now Aceh ) and its dependent territories
    • the west coast of Sumatra
    • Parts of Celebes' (today: Sulawesi ) and its dependent territories. Menado had his own resident
  • Residencies passed:
    • on Java and Madura: Bantam, Batavia, Preanger (Regencies), Cheribon (today: Ciribon ), Pekalongan, Semarang , Rambang, Surabaya , Madura, Pasuruan, Besuki, Banyumas, Kedu, Jokyakarta, Surakarta (Solo), Madiun , Kediri . Beginning in 1926, these areas were grouped into three provinces.
    • Sumatra: Tapanuli, Bencoolen, Lampongs, Palembang, Jambi, for the east coast, Riouw, and Bangka and its dependent areas
    • on Borneo (today: Kalimantan ): one each in the south, west and east (the north-west with Brunei and Sarawak was British)
    • Sunda Islands : Timor, Bali, Lombok
    • Moluccas: Ambonia (including southern New Guinea)
    • Billiton (now Belitung ) was administered by an assistant resident.

On Java there were about 70 native "regents," responsible for the natives, an institution that arose from the bupati (vassals with an obligation to military service) of the Javanese kingdoms. Many of them were of noble birth. As the chief chiefs of the local administration, they were directly responsible for the natives, but had limited legal powers. They were also responsible for applying Islamic civil law. They were checked by a European “advisor” to the resident. They designated a patih for day-to-day business. Individual districts were headed by a paid wedono , he too with a Dutchman at his side. In the external holdings only the three sagi of Great Aceh and the chiefs of Bangli and Gianjar in Bali were in a position similar to that of the regents. Where there was no division into districts and sub-districts, and where there was no prince, the appointed village chiefs ( lura ) formed the lowest level of administration. These chiefs, sometimes with a council of elders, were responsible for collecting the land rent in free indigenous village communities ( desa ) , they also had a regulatory role (night watch, etc.).

In regions outside of their homeland, where a larger group of one ethnic group was more strongly represented, an indigenous chief was appointed for them. This also applied to the Arabs and Chinese, who also had their own councils in some of the larger cities.

Self-government of the cities

Meeting room of the Surabaya City Council (1938)

With a decentralization law passed in 1903/1905 it was provided that councils (with a say in local issues such as sewerage, water supply, slaughterhouses, ferries, etc.) were to be created in the provinces, districts and cities. This was initially only implemented for larger cities. From 1910, partially indirectly elected municipal councils were set up in 26 larger cities. After 1925 own mayors were also elected. The funds available were made permanent due to the money spent by the central government in 1903 for the respective city, which led to problems in view of the rapid population growth and inflation after the First World War.

Princely states

Similar to the princely states in British India, the colonial rulers initially regulated their relations with local rulers through alliance agreements. These agreements have been changed frequently; What the treaties had in common was that diplomatic relations with other states were renounced, and in many cases there was also the obligation to abolish slavery and / or to fight pirates. Depending on the prince's military strength, the Dutch managed to gain a say in the judiciary and administration. The constitution of 1854 guaranteed the sovereigns their rights, the ordinances issued in Batavia did not necessarily apply in the princely states. The princes had the right to demand compulsory labor and received a percentage of the proceeds from the products grown for the monopolies. In the last years of the 19th century, the treaties were successively replaced by a new, only three paragraph long ( Korte Verklaring ), in which the submission of around 330 of the 350 "independent territories" was laid down. Only in Achin and parts of the Timor Sea did some older rights continue to apply. At the same time, however, all local taxes were collected in regional treasuries administered by the colonial power. After 1900 the regents received an official residence and an appanage to compensate for the loss of the labor service. The princes were given a maximum of 40% of their income for themselves and the court. An ordinance of 1914 regulated the relationship to the colonial power in detail.

The sultans of Solo and Jogjakarta on Java (together 7% of the land area) were vassals of the government in Batavia. They didn't have the coin rack, all the teak and the bird's nest cliffs belonged to the colonial power, which also controlled the opium trade. A resident acted as a "consultant" at her court. The rights of the local judiciary and police were increasingly curtailed until 1903. The assumption of office (subject to approval) of every new ruler was used, similar to how the British did it on the subcontinent, to redefine the rights of the prince. H. usually restrict.

Judiciary

The Supreme Court ( Hooggerechtshof ) in Batavia had appointed two chambers, the judges were from the Colonial Secretary. He was a constitutional court, an appellate body in civil matters involving large amounts, and a revision body in important criminal matters. The governor-general was also present on questions relating to the pardon. The Hooge Raad der Nederlanden in The Hague also stood above this .

Judgment day of a landraad in the province of Japara presided over by the resident van Spall (1867)

In the Dutch East Indies there was no equality before the law. There were two classes of jurisdiction. On the one hand for Europeans and their equals (mixed race, Japanese, non-indigenous Christians, naturalized "civilized" natives) and the rest. For the former, European law based on the Code Napoléon applied , for indigenous people, including Chinese, Moors and Arabs traditional law ( adat ). The Chinese were subject to numerous restrictions. European courts also used the adat against natives, indigenous courts that were constituted in a variety of forms and that had no jurisdiction over whites, just traditional law. For local Christians and Chinese, the European civil status law partially applied. The difference was greatest in questions of criminal law. In 1914 special magistrates were appointed who judged petty crime without racial differences. After the First World War, a uniform penal code was promulgated. The preferential treatment of all Europeans was abolished after 1925, and from then on it still applied to a limited extent to Dutch citizens (not subjects).

Under the Supreme Court, Raads van justitie existed with far-reaching powers and legal requirements. They were maritime courts of law , appeal bodies for criminal and civil cases over 100 florins of the Landraaden. They were the first instance in criminal cases against Europeans and high-ranking natives.

Java and Madura insisted as the first instance when Europeans complained against natives landraaden, in the outlying estates courts at the seat of the respective resident ( resident-fair ). They were allowed to pronounce judgments in civil cases 500 florins or sentences of up to three months in prison. They usually consisted of a European judge with one or two native assessors. A local lawyer usually acted as the European judge. They were the first instance for natives. The resident also had criminal authority in the area of ​​police offenses. Further lower courts with restricted powers for locals were under the direction of wedonos. Questions of ecclesiastical Islamic law were decided in the outskirts by special courts chaired by the penghulu of a district with three to eight assessors.

police

police officers

The central authority maintained two types of police. On the one hand, the usual one, which was modernized after 1920. There was also an armed gendarmerie with 22 “divisions” of various sizes, which were usually commanded by a retired officer. Its main purpose was to pacify insurgent locals. Most of the local crews were also former soldiers. Until the First World War, their armament consisted of sabers and Beaumont carbines . There were separate prisons for whites and natives.

military

The army was expanded by 40% between 1854 and 1860. During this time, numerous smaller expeditions took place, which, like the one against Sultan Taha of Jambi in 1858 , served to subdue the outskirts. Since the late 1870s there was a guerrilla war against Aceh in northern Sumatra , an action that led to budget deficits for years. A government commission found in 1912/13 that the defense of the colony was inadequate, but that an improvement was difficult to afford. It was therefore tried to maintain friendly relations with all neighboring countries. This succeeded until the 1930s when Japan was increasingly perceived as a threat.

Advancing KNIL artillery on Sumatra in the village of Rantau Kapas Muda (Sultanate of Jambi, 1902)

At the end of 1914 the crew was 38,326, of which 1,286 were officers , all of them Europeans. The teams included 8,676 Europeans (including 600 Germans and 1,690 mixed race, the rest Dutch). An attempt was made among the natives to achieve a ratio of 2 to 1 between “warlike races” such as Ambonese (with higher pay ) and other natives. The cavalry was 927 strong. 2,786 men among 121 officers served in the artillery . Most of the troops, around 25,000 men, were stationed on Java, and there was a special unit called the Maréchaussée in troubled Aceh .

The legion of Mangku Negara (1914: 764 infantrymen , 26 officers; Sultanate Solo) and three smaller units ( barisans ) with a total of 1,367 foot soldiers consisted of purely local troops .

There was also a militia ( Schutterij ) which, if necessary, had to ensure peace and order in the event of local unrest. All Europeans between 18 and 45, as well as Malays, Bunginese and Moors between 18 and 40 were compulsory.

An air force was established by royal decree in 1914. In 1939 the Luftwaffe received its own coat of arms.

marine

The size of the navy was insufficient to protect the entire sea area. Their organization was also characterized by the competition between colonial administration and naval leadership and was therefore not very effective. On the one hand there was a squadron of the Royal Navy ( Nederlandsch Eskader in Oost-Indië ) sent from the motherland , which was commanded directly by the Ministry of the Navy.

On the other hand, the local colonial administration had its own military association ( Indian Militaire Marine from 1866, emerged from the Colonial Navy , which was dissolved in 1840 ). This comprised a few smaller and mostly outdated torpedo and gunboats , was subordinate to the Governor General and was paid for by the Colonial Ministry itself; the ship's crews still belonged to the Royal Navy. In addition, there was also the paramilitary governorate navy, the state-civilian navy and coast guard of the colony for water police and seafaring tasks.

The two main naval bases were Surabaya and Tanjung Priok .

In December 1941, three cruisers and almost twenty smaller units were available (not including auxiliary ships), which were used in the battle of the Java Sea on 27/28. February 1942 or as a result of the invasion of Java almost all of them were sunk.

See also

literature

  • Joseph Chailley-Bert: Le Recrutement des Fonctionnaires Coloniaux. La Hollande et les Fonctionnaires des Indes Néerlandaises. A. Colin, Paris 1893.
  • John S. Furnivall: Netherlands-India. A Study of Colonial Policy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1939 (reprints 1944, 1970, 1976).
  • Michelle Galizia: Administrative Logic and Native Authority Structures. The capture of a mountain valley in Sumatra by the Dutch. In: Eva-Maria Auch (ed.): “Barbarians” and “White Devils”. Cultural Conflicts and Imperialism in Asia from the 18th to the 20th Century . Schöningh, Paderborn u. a. 1997, ISBN 3-506-70402-8 .
  • Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty: A Manual of Netherlands India (Dutch East Indies). Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1920 ( full text ).
  • Friederich Hoffmann: Dutch East Indies in the last century. In: World Economic Archive . 4, 1914, ISSN  0043-2636 , pp. 121-131.
  • Jantje de Jong: Van batig slot naar ereschuld. De discussie over de financiële verhouding tussen Nederland en Indië en de herrorming van de Nederlandse koloniale politiek 1860–1900. SDU, 's-Gravenhage 1989, ISBN 90-12-06237-3 (Groningen, Rijksuniv., Diss., 1989).
  • Jacobus Lion: Verzameling van de voornaamste publiek- en privaatrechtelijke algemeene verordeningen voor Nederlandsch-Indië, benevens de grondwetten voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden van 1848 en 1887, alle naar de officieele teksten op nieuw gecorrigeerd. Bijgewerk voorzien van aanteekeningen, een tabel en uitgebreide registers. = Algemeene verordeningen voor Nederlandsch-Indië . = Publications privaatrechtelijke algemeene verordeningen voor Nederlandsch-Indië . Scheltema & Holkema u. a., Amsterdam a. a. 1890 (legal texts).
  • J. de Louter; Handleiding tot de Kennis van het Staats- en Administratief-Recht van Nederlandsch-Indie. 5. Herziene en bijgewerkte Uitgave. Martinus Nijhoff, 's-Gravenhage 1904.
  • CW Margadant: Het Regeeringsreglement van Nederlandsch-Indië. Kolff et al. a., Batavia u. a. 1894-1997.
  • E. Moresco : The constitutional reform in the Dutch East Indies. In: Journal for Foreign Public Law and International Law . 2, 1931, ISSN  0044-2348 , pp. 484-520, online (PDF; 3.7 MB) (PDF)
  • Pieter Myer: Verzameling van instructien, ordonnancien en reglementen voor de Regering van Nederlandsch Indie, vastgesteld in de jaren 1609, 1617, 1632, 1650, 1807, 1815, 1818, 1827, 1830 en 1836. Vorlands-drukherij, Batavia 1848 ( full text ) .
  • J. Spanjaard, Mrs. WH Leckyurnal: Civil Service of the Dutch East Indies as Compared with That of Britain in India. In: Journal of the Royal African Society . Vol. 2, No. 8, July 1903, ISSN  0001-9909 , pp. 433-442.
  • FA Schöppel: Commercial Handbook of the Dutch East Indies. Lechner, Vienna 1907 ( Treatises of the Geographical Society in Vienna Vol. 6, No. 2, ISSN  0255-2841 ), ( full text ).
  • Tariff of duties on imports and exports for the Island of Java and the Dutch East India colonies. Dickinson, Boston 1844.
  • CPK Winckel: Essai sur les principes régissant l'administration de la Justice aux Indes Orientales Hollandaises surtout dans les îles de Java et de Madoura et leur application. van Dorp et al. a., Samarang et al. a. 1880.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ 1842–97 36 appointments, 14 office holders from 1877–97 alone. Regeerings-Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indië , 1899, Volume 1, p. 574
  2. ↑ Art. 60 to 62
  3. ^ For the incumbent see: List of Governors General of the Dutch East Indies
  4. ↑ a b Francis Anzensberger: dissolution of the colonial empires . 4th edition. Munich 1981, ISBN 3-423-04013-0 , p. 114 f.
  5. ^ A b E. Moresco: The constitutional reform in the Dutch East Indies . In: ZOAV 1931 , pp. 484-520
  6. ↑ (in thousands of fl.) Clive Day: Policy and administration of the Dutch in Java . London 1904, p. 386
  7. ↑ Lawrence Lowell: Colonial Civil Service . New York 1900, pp. 113–171 ( full text )
  8. ↑ A. Cabaton: Java, Sumatra, and the other islands of the Dutch East Indies . London 1911, p. 208
  9. ↑ With an average annual income of a peasant family of 13 florins (ZOAV 1931)
  10. ↑ cf. Regeering's Almanac, 1913
  11. ↑ on practice: De Gouvernements-Koffie-cultuur van 1888–1903 . Batavia 1904
  12. ↑ Tydschrift voor Staathuiskunde en Statitiek, 1863, p. 339
  13. ^ Jan C. van Ours: The Price Elasticity of Hard Drugs: The Case of Opium in the Dutch East Indies, 1923-1938 . In: Journal of Political Economy , Vol. 103, No. 2 (Apr. 1995), pp. 261-79
  14. ↑ Peter Sitsen: Industrial Development of the Netherlands Indies . 1943
  15. ↑ Regeering's regulations (complete: Reglement op het beleid der regeering ), Art. 67 and 69. Revised in 1899 and 1901.
  16. ↑ formulated in 1898 by Snouck Hurgronje (advisor in Indonesia 1889–1906, then professor of Arabic in Leiden). E. Gobée, C. Adriaanse (Ed.): Ambtelijke adviezen van C. Snouck Hurgronje 1889-1936 . The Hague 1957-65, 3 volumes.
  17. ↑ for Kalimantan cf. I. Black: The 'lastposten': Eastern Kalimantan and the Dutch… In: Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Vol. 16, 1985, pp. 281-91
  18. ↑ Estimated total costs approx. 200 million fl. Clive Day: Policy and administration of the Dutch in Java . London 1904, p. 386, archive.org
  19. ↑ Herman Stapelkamp: Oorlog in Aceh: Het journaal van luitenant-ter-zee Henricus Nijgh, 1873-1874 . Uitgeversmaatschappij Walburg Pers, 2010, p. 11/12 ( De marineorganisatie )