York Castle

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Clifford's Tower, the keep of York Castle

York Castle is a ruined castle in the northern English city ​​of York . For the past nine centuries, the fortified complex on the south bank of the River Foss has housed a number of castles, prisons, courts of law, and other buildings. The ruins of the donjon of the Norman castle are now known as Clifford's Tower . This castle was originally built at the behest of William the Conqueror to dominate the former Viking city of York. It had a tumultuous early history before it was expanded into a large fortress with extensive water fortifications. After a major explosion in 1684, the remaining military fortifications were uninhabitable. York Castle continued to serve as a prison until 1929.

The first moth on this site was built in 1068 after the Norman conquest of York . After this castle had already been destroyed by rebels and a Viking army the following year, it was rebuilt and with extensive water fortifications, such as. B. a moat and an artificial lake, better fortified. York Castle was an important royal fortress in northern England.

In 1190 a pogrom took place in the castle donjon , in which 150 local Jews were killed. King Henry III had the castle rebuilt in stone in the middle of the 13th century. The result was a donjon with a unique layout in the shape of a clover leaf , which was surrounded by an outer castle wall and a massive gatehouse . In the Scottish Wars of Independence from 1298 to 1338, York Castle was often the center of royal administration over England and an important base for military operations.

York Castle deteriorated in the 15th and 16th centuries and was increasingly used as a prison for local offenders and political prisoners. At the time of Elizabeth I , the castle was believed to have lost all of its military value, but it was preserved as the center of royal authority in York. When the English Civil War broke out in 1642, York Castle was repaired and re-fortified so that it could play its role as a royalist defensive position against parliamentary troops in 1644 . The castle remained a garrison until 1684; then an explosion destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower. The outer bailey was restored in the 18th century as the administrative center of Yorkshire in a classical style and served as a prison and debtor's tower . The prison reform of the 19th century led to the construction of a new Jacobean style prison on the castle grounds in 1825. It was first used as a district prison and then as a military prison; this building was demolished in 1935. In the 20th century, the ruins of Clifford's Tower became a well-known tourist attraction and national monument. English Heritage is now the owner and the castle ruins are open to the public. The other remaining buildings serve as the York Castle Museum and Crown Court .

history

11th century

York was a Viking capital in the 10th century, and it continued to be an important city in northern England through the 11th century. In 1068, on his first voyage north after the Norman conquest of England , William the Conqueror had a number of castles built across the north-east of England, including York Castle. This first castle in York was a simple, wooden moth between the Ouse and Foss rivers , on the exact site of today's York Castle. The castle was built hastily; contemporary sources speak of only eight days, even if this timing is doubted. The moth was originally 61 meters wide at its foot. Because it was built in an urban setting, hundreds of houses had to be demolished to make way for the castle. Care of the castle was entrusted to William Malet , the High Sheriff of Yorkshire , and he successfully defended it against an immediate uprising by the neighboring population.

In response to the deteriorating security situation, Wilhelm traveled north a second time in 1069. He had another castle built in York at what is now called Baile Hill , on the west bank of the Ouse, opposite the first castle. So he tried to improve control of the city. This second castle was also a moth; it could probably be reached via a horizontal bridge and steps cut into the hill. Later that year a Danish Viking fleet sailed up the Humber and Ouse up to York and attacked both castles with the help of Gospatric of Northumbria and a number of local rebels. The Normans set fire to some houses in the city while attempting to repel the Danes. The fire got out of hand and spread to York Minster . Some believe that the castles were also set on fire in this way. The castles were captured and partially demolished. Malet was captured by the Danes.

King William carried out a wide range of punitive expeditions across northern England in 1069 and 1070 after the attacks. This Harrying of the North restored sufficient order for the castles to be rebuilt - again from wood. The outer bailey of York Castle was slightly enlarged. It is believed that the following buildings were located in the castle: "Knights' halls, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, blacksmiths [and] workshops". When the Domesday Book was written in 1086 , York Castle was also surrounded by a water-filled moat and a large artificial lake called King's Pool , fed by the River Foss through a dam, was built for this purpose. Other private buildings, including two water mills , had to be demolished to make room for the water fortifications. Over time, the castle on Baile Hill was abandoned in favor of the first castle. Only the moth hill, which can still be seen today, remained.

12th Century

A section through the moth of York Castle, by Sir Basil Mott (1903). "A" denotes the concrete support from the 20th century. The low walls that enclose the base of the moth date from the 19th century.

King Henry II visited York Castle four times during his reign. The royal dormitories were then located in the donjon for security reasons and Henry paid £ 15 to repair the donjon. During his visit in 1175, Henry used the castle to receive the homage from William the Lion of Scotland. Watermills were built near the castle to supply the garrison and the Templar Military Order was given ownership of them in the mid-12th century. The mills proved too susceptible to flooding from the two rivers and had to be repeatedly repaired.

In 1190 the worst pogrom in medieval England took place at York Castle . The Normans had introduced the first Jewish communities in England, where some Jews were active as money lenders , an important activity but forbidden to Christians by the Catholic Church. English Jews faced significant religious prejudice and worked mainly from cities that had royal castles for their protection in the event of attacks by the Christian majority. Protection by the kings was usually guaranteed, since the Norman and Angevin kings had decreed that Jewish possessions and debts with the Jews ultimately belonged to the crown and would fall to the king if the Jew in question died.

Richard I was crowned King of England in 1189 and announced his intention to join the Crusades , which sparked anti-Jewish sentiments. Rumors arose that the king had ordered the attack on the English Jews. In York the tension erupted into violence the following year. Richard de Malbis, who owed money to the powerful Jew Aaron of Lincoln, used an accidentally caused house fire to incite the local mob to attack the home and family of a recently deceased Jewish employee of Aaron of Lincoln. Josce von York, the head of the Jewish community, escorted the Jewish families to the royal castle, where they took refuge in the wooden donjon. The mob surrounded the castle, and when the constable left the castle to discuss the situation, the Jews, who were afraid that the mob would invade the castle or that they would be handed over to the sheriff, refused to let him return. The siege lasted until March 16, and the situation of the Jews eventually became untenable. Their religious leader, Rabbi Yomtob, suggested an act of collective suicide to prevent killing by the mob, and so the castle was set on fire so their bodies would not be maimed. Quite a few Jews perished in the fire, but most of them took their own lives so as not to submit to the mob. Some Jews surrendered and promised to convert to Christianity, but were killed by the angry crowd. Around 150 Jews died in the massacre. The donjon was rebuilt on the moth, which was raised by 4 meters, again in wood, at a cost of £ 207.

13th and 14th centuries

Reconstruction of York Castle in the 14th century, viewed from the southeast

King John Ohneland made intensive use of York Castle during his reign, with the donjon serving as his personal residence for his safety. The castle was kept in good condition during this period. The first records of the use of the castle as a prison date from this time: prisoners were held there that Johann Ohneland had taken during his campaigns in Ireland . By the 13th century a good system of castle guards had been established, under which the king distributed various lands around York in exchange for the provision of knights and archers to support the defense of the castle.

King Henry III also used the castle intensively, but during his visit at Christmas 1228 a winter storm destroyed the wooden donjon on the Motte. The donjon was obviously not repaired, instead a new building was built for the king in the outer bailey. In 1244, when the Scots threatened to invade England, King Henry III visited. the castle and ordered the rebuilding of the donjon in white limestone at a cost of about £ 2,600. The work was carried out from 1245 to 1270 and comprised the construction of a turreted curtain wall , a Gatehouse of considerable size with two large towers, two smaller gate houses, a small water gate, a small passage to the city, a chapel and a stone Donjons, the first King's Tower and later Clifford's Tower .

Clifford's Tower is of unusual construction. The two-story tower is shaped like a four-leaf clover with four round lobes. Each lobe is 6.5 meters in diameter and has walls 3 meters thick. At its widest point, the donjon reaches 24 meters. A square gatehouse 6.5 meters wide protected the entrance on the south side between two of the lobes. There are defensive turrets between the other lobes. Large consoles and a central pillar carried the enormous weight of the stones on the upper floor. Peepholes of a construction unique to York Castle served as loopholes. A 4.5 x 4.2 meter chapel was built over the entrance, which also served as a portcullis room , as in Harlech Castle and Chepstow Castle . It is thought that the tower was intended as an attempt to improve flanking fire by exposing more of the ground from the top of the donjon. Although such a construction is unique in England, it is similar to that in Étampes Castle in France and could have influenced the construction of the later donjon of Pontefract Castle . King Henry hired master builder Henry de Rayns and master builder Simon of Northampton to undertake this project, and the cost of the tower made up a large part of the total cost of the work on the castle at the time.

A floor plan of Clifford's Tower. A = passage; B = staircase to the chapel on the upper floor; C = stairwells to the upper levels and to the parapet; D = recesses for the peepholes; E = well; F = open fireplace; G = abortions

The new castle required continued investment in order to maintain its status as a military fortress. Winter floods at the turn of the year 1315/16 washed away earth at the base of the moth, which had to be repaired immediately. Around 1358-1360, the heavy stone donjon suffered again from settlement and the southeastern lobe tore from top to bottom. Royal officials recommended that the donjon be completely rebuilt, but instead the rag was repaired for £ 200.

King Edward I gave the High Sheriff of Yorkshire far-reaching power to apply the law in the city of York, and the sheriffs chose Clifford's Tower as their headquarters. During the Scottish Wars of Independence under Edward I and his son, York Castle also formed a center of royal administration in England for almost half of the years between 1298 and 1338. Many Westminster institutions followed the king north to York and established themselves on the castle grounds. The castle buildings existing at the time proved to be insufficient to accommodate all administrative institutions. A temporary building in the castle was built in the early years for the civil court . In the years 1319-1320 the court received a new building. The tax office (Exchequer) took over Clifford's Tower. As a result of the castle's extensive use for these purposes, the court at York Castle vied with that in London. This remained so until the 1360s. The castle also got its own mint in 1344 . This was Edward III. arranged to have gold and silver coins minted for use in northern England. European minters were brought to York to put the new coin into service.

Henry III. continued to develop the role of the castle as a prison, so that many types of prisoners were held there. The sheriff was then in charge of the prison and the deputy sheriff usually took on the full role of a prison guard. Up to 310 prisoners were held in the castle at the same time. The conditions under which the prisoners were held were “terrifying” and often led to the deaths of the prisoners. Prison breakouts were relatively common and many of them, such as: B. an outbreak of 28 prisoners in 1298, were successful. When the military Knights Templar was dissolved in England in 1307, York Castle was used as a prison for many of the imprisoned knights. The castle's mills, which had previously belonged to the Knights Templar, fell back to the Crown at the same time. Edward II also used the castle as a political prison in his struggle against the rebel barons in 1322 and after the Battle of Boroughbridge many defeated rebel leaders were executed at York Castle.

Towards the end of the 14th century, the outer bailey was mainly occupied by the local county administration. The castle served as a prison on a large scale, with the inmates sitting in different towers around the outer bailey. The old "Castle Guard" system for securing the castle had been changed so that the Crown used the leases on the local royal lands to hire guards for the castle. Increasingly, the royal lords preferred to stay in the Franciscan monastery in York between the castle and the royal quay on the Ouse, while their court resided in the Marian Abbey in York or in the Andrea Priory in the Fishergate area .

15th and 16th centuries

A panorama of York in the 15th century. York Castle is on the right bank of the river, across from the abandoned motte of Baile Hill.

In the 15th century, York Castle, along with Nottingham Castle, was considered an important security asset in northern England, but investment in these castles also declined. Repairs to York Castle became a rarity from 1400 onwards and the castle fell into disrepair. Richard III realized the problem and had some of the particularly decrepit buildings demolished, but he died in the Battle of Bosworth before rebuilding of those buildings could begin. During the reign of Henry VIII , archaeologist John Leland reported that the castle was in considerable disrepair. Nonetheless, the water fortifications remained intact, unlike many other castles at the time. As a result of the decline, Henry had to be informed that the king's councilors no longer had an official residence to live and work in when in York. The coin in the castle was made after the death of King Edward VI. Closed in 1553 and the castle's mills were given to a local, non-profit hospital in 1464. The hospital was then closed during the Reformation and the mills fell back into private hands.

The castle continued to serve as a prison, increasingly for local criminals, and as a site for politically motivated executions. By the 16th century, it had become customary to hang offenders at the top of Clifford's Tower instead of killing them in Micklegate Bar (York City Wall's gatehouse), the former place for the execution of the death sentences in York. So was z. B. in 1536 the political leader Robert Aske was executed at York Castle on the orders of Henry VIII after his Pilgrimage of Grace had failed in protest against the dissolution of the English monasteries . For most of the time, the Yorkshire sheriffs retained control of the castle, though there were a few notable exceptions to this, such as: B. the appointment of the royal favorite Robert Ryther by King Edward IV in 1478. At the end of the 16th century the Clifford family , the Earls of Cumberland , received the hereditary title of constable of the castle and Clifford's Tower was named after this family.

The decay of the castle continued into the reign of Elizabeth I , who was then informed that the castle no longer had any military value. Robert Redhead , the tower guard, was notorious at the time for tearing down parts of the castle and selling the stones for his own profit. Despite various attempts by city and crown officials to stop this behavior, Redhead continued to inflict great damage on the castle before he could be forced to stop. In 1596 there were proposals to completely demolish Clifford's Tower, but this was rejected because of the strong feelings of the local population.

17th century

York Castle in 1644 in the English Civil War , according to Francis Place .

The castle became increasingly expensive to maintain and in 1614 King James I sold Clifford's Tower and the surrounding lands to John Babington and Edmund Duffield , two property speculators. These in turn sold him to a merchant family from York. In 1642, however, the English civil war broke out between the rival parties of the royalists and the parliamentarists . Forces loyal to King Charles I garrisoned York Castle and the surrounding city in 1643 under the command of Henry Clifford . York became the “northern capital” of the royalist cause. Clifford had the castle repaired and the walls reinforced so that they could be armed with cannons. He placed his coat of arms together with that of the king above the entrance. The gatehouse of Clifford's Tower was completely rebuilt and lost its original, medieval look. Baile Hill across the river became a cannon site. the castle mint was reopened to supply the king's troops with coins.

The fortunes of war turned against the royalists and on April 23, 1644 parliamentary forces began the siege of York. A Scottish army under Alexander Leslie came from the south, while the parliamentary forces under Ferdinando Fairfax came from the east. Six weeks later, Edward Montagu brought a third contingent to York, bringing the number of besiegers to 30,000. William Cavendish commanded the city during the siege, while Colonel Sir Francis Cobb was appointed governor of the castle. Despite the bombing, attempts to undermine the walls and attacks on the gates, the city was able to hold its own through May and June. Prince Ruprecht was sent to York at the head of relief troops and by skillful maneuvering he managed to force the besiegers to surrender and retreat, lifting the siege of the city on July 1st. The next day parliamentary forces defeated Prince Ruprecht's troops at the Battle of Marston Moor , some 10 km west of York, making the abandonment of York and York Castle inevitable. On July 14th, the town and castle were handed over to the parliamentary forces, who allowed the royalist troops to withdraw with honor.

Parliament appointed Thomas Dickenson , the local major, governor of Clifford's Tower. Control of the castle remained with the major until the Stuart restoration . There were attempts to separate Clifford's Tower, which the parliamentarians used as a garrison, from the buildings in the outer bailey, which continued to serve as a prison. Oliver Cromwell visited Clifford's Tower in 1650 and received gun salutes from the cannons stationed on top. The city of York had to bear the costs of the garrison.

A massive explosion destroyed the roof, floor and central pillar of Clifford's Tower, but left the walls intact.

After the Stuart restoration by King Charles II , the previous owners of Clifford's Tower claimed it and then got their property back. A garrison was also stationed there, preventing the owners from using their property. The donjon was repaired and turned into a magazine for gunpowder and cannonballs . Attempts were also made to improve the condition of the moat, which was completely silted up. During the Stuart Restoration, some political prisoners were also held at the castle. B. George Fox , the founder of the Quakers .

The county's facilities in the outer bailey were expanded during these years, e.g. B. The Grand Jury House and Common Hall were expanded, but the role of the military garrison at York Castle was called into question in the 1680s. Sir Christopher Musgrave prepared a report for the Crown in 1682. He indicated that it would cost at least £ 30,000 to upgrade the castle to a modern fortress, and suggested six bastions . The work required for this was never carried out. In the meantime, the garrison and castle had become very unpopular with the people of York, both because of the cost and because of outside tutelage.

On St. George's Day 1684 at around 10:00 p.m., an explosion in the magazine completely destroyed the entire interior of Clifford's Tower. The official explanation for this was that a gun salute from the roof of the building in celebration of the day set the magazine on fire. Most historians believe, however, that the explosion was not accidentally caused. Back then it was customary in the city to drink to the possible destruction of the “minced pie”, as the people of York called the castle. Strangely, shortly before the explosion, some members of the garrison had their personal effects safe and not a single soldier was injured in the event. The heat of the fire turned the limestone of the donjon slightly pink, as it is today. The now ruinous donjon was then completely returned to private ownership and formed part of the property of the neighboring house, which belonged to Samuel Waud .

18th century

Sketch of the York Castle estate (approx. 1730): From left to right: location of the former outer bailey with the Sessions House ; Prison with courthouse; Clifford's Tower with the River Foss in front and the River Ouse behind; Samuel Waud's house and garden.

Around 1701 the conditions in the district prison had become scandalous and it was decided to rebuild the area of ​​the old outer bailey. A locally levied tax formed part of the funding and the king allowed the ruins of St Mary's Abbey to be used as a quarry. Three new buildings were erected south of Clifford's Tower. A new county prison, built by William Wakefield in 1701–1705 , was placed on the south side. It was very similar to the then modern work of John Vanbrugh . The local architect John Carr then designed the circuit court , which was built 1773-1777 in place of the old courthouse on the west side. It was higher than the women's prison, which was built to replace the Sessions House and Common Hall 1780–1783 on the east side. The women's prison and the district prison were later merged to form the guilty prison. Both buildings designed by Carr showed a distinctly classical style, the jury court was at that time hailed as a "great building with Ionic columns". In the castle courtyard a circular lawn was created in 1777, the "Eye of the Ridings" (Eng. "Eye of the Ridings"; Riding = sub (election) district) was called because it was used to elect members of parliament for York.

During visits to these prisons, which the prison reformer John Howard carried out as part of a research for his book The State of the Prisons , he found them to be damaged but in relatively good condition compared to other prisons at the time. The guilty prison as a whole was a Yorkshire "county honor" with "airy and wholesome" rooms, but the capital felon wing received some criticism. The wing for capital criminals was "too small" and had "no water connection" for the inmates. Inmates were also forced to sleep on bales of straw on the floor. In fact, conditions in the wing for felons were so bad that in 1739 nine prisoners were suffocated in one night.

Outside the castle walls, the castle's mills had become increasingly ineffective since the 16th century due to the decrease in water flow in the rivers that powered these mills. As a result, they were replaced by new steam engine- powered mills in 1778 . This steam engine caused considerable nuisance for the prisoners due to its smoke and noise.

19th century

The crenellated Jacobean gatehouse of the prison at York Castle, built in 1825, with the Clifford's Tower (illustration from 1830).

Criticism of the prison in the castle increased at the end of the 18th century. The facility was deemed unsuitable and the crowd that gathered outside the prison to watch the prisoners being brought to York for execution was unseemly. From 1803, attempts were made to improve the manner in which executions were carried out: The former courtyard, the "Eye of the Ridings", was used for this purpose instead of downtown York, even if the crowd was still in front the outer bailey to watch the slow death of the prisoners. In 1813 the execution process was accelerated by the introduction of the " short case ". A year later this enabled z. B. at the same time fourteen Buddhist agitators are executed in the castle. The overcrowding of the prison was now also a problem, with up to 114 prisoners being held at the same time. Occasionally about 40 prisoners on remand had to be placed in the prison yard because there was no other place for them.

The prison's suitability was eventually scrutinized when an official complaint was filed during the York jury trial in 1821 and an investigation began. It was decided to buy Clifford's Tower and the Wauds' house to tear them down to make way for a new, more modern prison. Sydney Smith , the noted scholar, author and vicar of Foston-le-Clay , successfully led a campaign to save Clifford's Tower by emphasizing the historical importance of the place to the surrounding city. Another suggestion made by the architect Robert Wallace was to convert Clifford's Tower into a habitable building that would be the center of a radially constructed prison. But this proposal was rejected.

In 1825, Clifford's Tower and the Wauds' house were acquired by Yorkshire County for £ 8,800 (compared to £ 665,000 in 2009). The new prison buildings, designed by architects PF Robinson and GT Andrews , were constructed in Jacobean style including an 11 meter high gatehouse and a radial prison block protected by a long stone wall . The prison was considered to be one of the strongest such buildings in England; it was built entirely of stone and was both escape-proof and incombustible. Dark gray, hard sandstone was used for the construction to give it a chilling appearance, even if the prison was considered to be in good health and well ventilated. Clifford's Tower played no part in the prison's formal design, although the moth's slope was cut and a retaining wall was added to make room for the new prison building. The back yard of the women's prison, which was protected from the public by a new wall, was used for hanging executions from 1868 onwards. The English prison system was reformed with the Prison Act of 1877 and the prison at York Castle was under central government from the following year. It served as the county prison until 1900 when the remaining prisoners were transferred to Wakefield prison. From then on the prison at York Castle served as a military prison .

Original designs by architects Robinson and Andrews for the front facade (left) and interior facade (right) of the new gatehouse of the prison at York Castle, built in 1825

In the early 19th century, dredging and other improvements on the Foss River made it possible to bring flour to York on the river, and the castle mills declined in economic importance. In 1856 the castle mills were finally torn down to improve the conditions on this part of the river. The King's Pool , part of the castle's water defenses, has been drained. With the construction of several new bridges near the castle, it was "no longer surrounded by ditches, but by roads".

In 1890 the prison authorities agreed to have Clifford's Tower declared a national monument and preserved as a historic site. In 1902, Clifford's Tower was handed over to the North Yorkshire Administration for maintenance and repair through the mediation of Lord Wenlock, along with a sum of £ 3000 (compared: £ 242,000 in 2009) . Damage to the moth and the masonry of the donjon in the 16th century had put undue pressure on the supporting moth, leading to a return of the 14th century settlement. Sir Basil Mott , a senior Victorian civil engineer, installed a concrete substructure to stabilize the structure under the gatehouse. In the early 20th century, Clifford's Tower was regularly opened to the public and in 1915 it was given to the Office of Works as a national monument.

20th and 21st centuries

The women's prison, now part of the York Castle Museum .

York Prison finally closed in 1929 and the Jacobean prison buildings were demolished in 1935. The York Crown Court now resides in the jury building , while the former guilt and women's prison together with a new entrance area form the York Castle Museum . The circular lawn between the buildings, which was once called the "Eye of the Ridings", is now the Burggarten, or the "Eye of York". Clifford's Tower is the most visible part of the medieval fortifications that has been preserved to this day, only the stone steps that lead up on the side of the moth are of modern origin. Fragments of the castle wall, parts of the southern gatehouse and one of the corner towers are also preserved to this day.

The castle is listed by English Heritage as a Grade I Historic Building and is a Scheduled Monument . The property is managed by English Heritage and is open to the public. Until the 1970s, the pogrom of 1190 was often downplayed in the castle's official historiography; early official leaders don't even mention it. But in 1978 the first plaque to commemorate the victims was placed on the foundations of Clifford's Tower and in 1990 it commemorated the 800th anniversary of the murders. Recently, investors wanted to establish supermarkets in the vicinity of the donjon. Citizens, visitors, academics, environmental activists, local business people and Jewish groups have successfully prevented this development by winning a lengthy and bitter process in 2003.

View of York Minster from Clifford's Tower

Individual references and comments

  1. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 2.
  2. ↑ a b c d Reginald Allen Brown: Allen Brown's English Castles . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2004, ISBN 1-84383-069-8 , p. 32.
  3. ^ Reginald Allen Brown: Allen Brown's English Castles . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2004, ISBN 1-84383-069-8 , p. 110.
  4. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 15.
  5. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 14.
  6. ^ A b G. T. Clark: The Defenses of York in The Archaeological Journal . Issue 31 ff, p. 239.
  7. ^ A b c Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990, ISBN 0-521-45828-5 , p. 7.
  8. ^ Reginald Allen Brown: Allen Brown's English Castles . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2004, ISBN 1-84383-069-8 , p. 41.
  9. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 3.
  10. ↑ a b c d e Lise E. Hull: Britain's Medieval Castles . Praeger, Westport 2006, ISBN 0-275-98414-1 , p. 98.
  11. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 18.
  12. ↑ Hull and others refer to documentary evidence indicating that the castles were first burned down and partially demolished. Cooper disagrees, relying on excavations that have produced no evidence that a fire damaged substantial parts of the castles.
  13. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 16.
  14. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 13.
  15. ^ A b G. T. Clark: The Defenses of York in The Archaeological Journal . Issue 31 ff, p. 255.
  16. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 12-13.
  17. ^ A b c Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 23.
  18. ↑ The comparison of medieval values ​​with today's sums is known to be difficult. As a comparison, the majority of the barons at that time earned an annual income of less than £ 100 from their lands.
  19. ^ Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990, ISBN 0-521-45828-5 , p. 59.
  20. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 117.
  21. ^ A b Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990, ISBN 0-521-45828-5 , p. 193.
  22. ↑ a b c d e f g Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 14.
  23. ↑ Joe Hillaby: Jewish Colonization in the Twelfth Century in Patricia Skinner (ed.): The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2003, ISBN 0-85115-931-1 , p. 16.
  24. ↑ Joe Hillaby: Jewish Colonization in the Twelfth Century in Patricia Skinner (ed.): The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2003, ISBN 0-85115-931-1 , pp. 21-22.
  25. ^ Doris Mary Stenton: English Society in the Early Middle Ages (1066-1307) . Penguin, Harmondsworth 1976, ISBN 0-14-020252-8 , p. 197.
  26. ^ Frank McLynn: Lionheart and Lackland: King Richard, King John and the Wars of Conquest . Vintage, London 2007, ISBN 978-0-7126-9417-9 , pp. 120-121.
  27. ↑ Joe Hillaby: Jewish Colonization in the Twelfth Century in Patricia Skinner (ed.): The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2003, ISBN 0-85115-931-1 , p. 29.
  28. ↑ a b c d e f Lise E. Hull: Britain's Medieval Castles . Praeger, Westport 2006, ISBN 0-275-98414-1 , p. 99.
  29. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 15.
  30. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 25.
  31. ↑ The comparison of medieval values ​​with today's sums is known to be difficult. As a comparison, £ 207 was a little more than the £ 200 the average baron had as annual income at the time.
  32. ^ A b c Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990, ISBN 0-521-45828-5 , p. 147.
  33. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 27-29.
  34. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 28.
  35. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 91.
  36. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 113.
  37. ^ A b c Reginald Allen Brown: Allen Brown's English Castles . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2004, ISBN 1-84383-069-8 , p. 86.
  38. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 31.
  39. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Cliffor's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 32.
  40. ^ A b c d Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 4.
  41. ↑ The comparison of medieval values ​​with today's sums is known to be difficult. As a comparison, £ 2,600 was about 13 times the average baron's annual income at the time.
  42. ^ A b Sidney Toy: Castles: Their Construction and History . Dover Publications, New York 1985, ISBN 0-486-24898-4 , p. 133.
  43. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 85, 87.
  44. ↑ Throughout this article, the Donjon is referred to as Clifford's Tower .
  45. ^ A b c G. T. Clark: The Defenses of York in The Archaeological Journal . Issue 31 ff, p. 256.
  46. ^ Sidney Toy: Castles: Their Construction and History . Dover Publications, New York 1985, ISBN 0-486-24898-4 , pp. 134-135.
  47. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 42-43.
  48. ^ GT Clark: The Defenses of York in The Archaeological Journal . Issue 31 ff, p. 257.
  49. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 16.
  50. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 63.
  51. ^ A b c d Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 17.
  52. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 76.
  53. ↑ The comparison of medieval values ​​with today's sums is known to be difficult. For comparison, £ 200 was about the annual income of an average baron at the time.
  54. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 50.
  55. ^ A b c d e Anthony Musson: Court Venues and the Politics of Justice in Nigel Saul (ed.): Fourteenth Century England . Volume 5. Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2008, ISBN 978-1-84383-387-1 , p. 164.
  56. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 151.
  57. ↑ a b c d e f Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , p. 45.
  58. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 98.
  59. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 111.
  60. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 97.
  61. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 102-103.
  62. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 126.
  63. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 51.
  64. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 115.
  65. ^ Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990, ISBN 0-521-45828-5 , p. 258.
  66. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 143.
  67. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 147.
  68. ↑ a b c d e f John Timbs, Alexander Gunn: Abbeys, Castles and Ancient Halls of England and Wales: Their Legendary Lore and Popular History . Volume 3. Read Books, Alcester 2008, ISBN 978-1-4437-8400-9 , p. 170.
  69. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 148.
  70. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 126, 155.
  71. ^ Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , p. 46.
  72. ^ A b c Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 158.
  73. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 146-147.
  74. ↑ Ryther also held the office of High Sheriff of Yorkshire twice , but it was unusual for the king to have control of the castle on a personal basis from 1478 onwards.
  75. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 149.
  76. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 161.
  77. ^ A b Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , p. 44.
  78. ^ A b c d Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 20.
  79. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 169.
  80. ↑ CV Wedgwood: The Kind's War: 1641-1647 . Fontana, London 1970, p. 77.
  81. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 155.
  82. ↑ CV Wedgwood: The Kind's War: 1641-1647 . Fontana, London 1970, p. 289.
  83. ↑ CV Wedgwood: The Kind's War: 1641-1647 . Fontana, London 1970, p. 311.
  84. ↑ CV Wedgwood: The Kind's War: 1641-1647 . Fontana, London 1970, pp. 312-313.
  85. ↑ a b C. V. Wedgwood: The Kind's War: 1641-1647 . Fontana, London 1970, p. 322.
  86. ^ A b Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , p. 41.
  87. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 173.
  88. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 172.
  89. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 180-181.
  90. ^ A b c d G. T. Clark: The Defenses of York in The Archaeological Journal . Issue 31 ff, p. 261.
  91. ^ Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , p. 42.
  92. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 181.
  93. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 183.
  94. ^ A b Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 21.
  95. ^ Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , pp. 43-44.
  96. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 177.
  97. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 22.
  98. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , pp. 8, 20, 22.
  99. ^ A b c d Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 8.
  100. ^ Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , p. 49.
  101. ↑ a b c d e f g Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 23.
  102. ^ Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , pp. 46-47.
  103. ^ A b Anthony William Twyford: Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison . Read Books, Alcester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9 , p. 47.
  104. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 128.
  105. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 129.
  106. ^ A b c Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 191.
  107. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 191-192.
  108. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 192.
  109. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 195.
  110. ↑ a b Financial comparison based on the RPI index, see Measuring Worth Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1830 to Present . MeasuringWorth. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
  111. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 239.
  112. ↑ a b c d e Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 24.
  113. ^ A b Robert Sears: A New ans Popular Pictoral Description of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the British Islands . Robert Sears, New York 1847, p. 180.
  114. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 196.
  115. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 130.
  116. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, pp. 196, 200.
  117. ^ A b Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 200.
  118. ^ Thomas Parsons Cooper: The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower . Elliot Stock, London 1911, p. 208.
  119. ^ Lawrence Butler: Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York . English Heritage, London 1997, ISBN 1-85074-673-7 , p. 9.
  120. ↑ York Castle at pastscape.org.uk.Retrieved August 19, 2015.
  121. ^ A b Barry Dobson: The Medieval York Jewry Reconsidered in Patricia Skinner (ed.): The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2003, ISBN 0-85115-931-1 , p. 145.
  122. ^ Castle Area Campaign News 2003 . York Castle Campaign. Retrieved August 19, 2015.

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Coordinates: 53 ° 57 '20.9 "  N , 1 ° 4' 48"  W.