Zeze (zither)

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Zeze also sese, Seze, zenze, nzenze, enzenze, dzenze, lunzenze which is Swahili -Name for multiple rod zithern (music bars) in East Africa and parts of Central Africa , beyond regional tray for spit loud and music sheets . The (i) zeze of the Wagogo in central Tanzania is a variant of the goge- type bowl lute found in West and East Africa ; the Sandawe in central Tanzania also call their single-string bow zeze .

Platt bar Zither zeze from the Congo with a melody and a drone string. Before 1930. Tropical Institute , Amsterdam.

More characteristic for East Africa and more important for music-ethnological research is the single or multi-string flat zither, denoted by the word zeze , with a calabash as a resonance body, with which songs and dances are accompanied. The type of instrument, which was widespread inland from the East African coast in the 19th century, is probably derived from the stick zithers found in Southeast Asia, which in turn show an Indian cultural influence. According to a generally accepted propagation theory, seafarers brought musical instruments from the Malay Islands to the East African coast and Madagascar from the 1st millennium onwards . The oldest images of this stick zither type can be found on Indian temple reliefs from the 7th century; they correspond to the tuila, which today only occurs in a small area in India .

Design

In contrast to a flexible musical bow, a rod zither consists of an almost rigid, straight string carrier over which one or more strings run parallel. The transitions between the stave zither and the musical bow are fluid, for example the mouth bow mtyangala , which is only played by women in northern Malawi , has an almost straight string support . The simple stick zithers with mostly one string can be recognized by flat pieces of wood or bridges pushed under at the ends, which keep the strings at a distance and which are missing in musical bows. Bar zithers can also be strung with several strings without any structural expansion, but with multi-string musical bows ( Pluriarc ), a separate bow bar is usually required for each string. While with tubular zithers such as the valiha in Madagascar, the tubular string carrier itself acts as a resonance body, rod zithers require a resonator attached to the rod below the string. A calabash is often used for this . Full-tube zithers do not occur on the African mainland and half- tube zithers such as the obsolete tshidzholo without a separate resonator or the segankuru with a tin canister instead of the calabash were restricted to southern Africa. They stand at the transition to the group of East African shell zithers, which is more diverse than that of the flat rod zithers.

According to the shape of the strings, round bar zithers are differentiated from flat bar zithers in Africa and mono- from poly-heterochordous musical bars according to the number of strings. The East African flat rod zithers consist of a flat, upright rod with a melody string over the narrow side and the sound box attached to the opposite narrow side. The flat rod zithers form a uniform group in the entire distribution area due to their similar shape and ornamental design of the string carrier. A long, straight or slightly curved middle area is common, which forks at one end and is structured at the other end by diamond-shaped patterns and transverse cones. Usually three round or square, cone-like extensions at one end form the support in order to shorten the string that runs just above it with the fingers. Sometimes attached cones serving as frets expand the width of the rod. The string support is designed largely or entirely symmetrically. The "zeze" cataloged in the Ethnological Museum in Berlin, the flat zithers are on average 55 to 65 centimeters long and in the straight area 2 to 3 centimeters high.

The string is tied to protruding corners at both ends. It consists of smooth or twisted plant material that has been cut out of the leaf veins of a certain species of palm (Swahili mwali , plural miwali ). The musician holds the instrument across his upper body and shortens the string with the fingers of his left hand, with which he grips the rod from below. Single-string flat bar zithers produce four tones: one on the empty-plucked melody string and one each by shortening this string on the three frets. With some rod zithers, one or more strings are also stretched across the middle of the (inner) broad side facing the player, which are plucked as drone strings without shortening them. Often only the inside of the bar is decorated with notched geometric patterns. It cannot be clearly determined whether the string carrier is mirror-symmetrical purely for design reasons or whether, as indicated by signs of use on some instruments, the inverted lower edge could also serve earlier than the side of the open melody string.

Middle left: Madagascan box- neck lute kabosy , whose forerunners probably came from Indonesia, like the South African ramkie . Middle right: flat bar zither jejy with three strings on the fingerboard and five strings on the side. Ny Malagasy Orkestra at the World Music Festival Horizonte in Koblenz, 2013.

The sound box, which consists of a cut calabash, is attached in a way that is characteristic of the type of instrument. If appropriate, the neck end cut off in a pear-shaped calabash is placed on the wide base of the corresponding section of another calabash and thus forms a kind of collar that serves as a transition to the string carrier. This is inserted into a U-shaped slot at the end of the neck. A string wrapped around the string support is pulled through a hole in the crown of the calabash and fixed to a cross piece of wood on the inside. The calabash is located on the smooth half of the string holder opposite the left hand.

In addition to the East African instruments with a melody string, there are also flat rod zithers (Swahili jejy , also jejo , from zeze , or Malagasy lokanga voatavo ) with four to eleven strings in Madagascar . As in East Africa, strings are stretched with wooden pegs on some instruments in Madagascar.

In a zeze described in 1982 in the south of Malawi, the upper part of the pumpkin is not loosely attached, but glued on and tied to the string carrier with a string as it did further north. This Malawian zeze has four strings made from twisted palm leaf fiber. Only the fourth string runs over the narrow side and can be tapped on three rectangular pegs. The three remaining strings are stretched across the broad side of the bar and are kept at a distance by small movable webs that are pushed under at the left end designed to form a circular disc. The strings can be tuned by moving the bridges.

A special feature of the flat bar zithers is a spring attached to the top edge of the string support at the right end as seen by the player. Its keel is bent into a U-shape and positioned exactly so that the keel leads around the fourth string at a distance of about one millimeter without touching it. When the string is struck, it swings against the spring and produces a rasping sound. The effect corresponds to that of Mirlitons , which are glued to xylophones via the small openings on the side of the resonators, or to the crown caps attached to lamellophones .

distribution

In the 19th century, the flat-bar zither was known on the East African coast and spread from several coastal stations between Bagamoyo (Tanzania) in the north and Quelimane (Mozambique) in the south into the interior. The name zeze was first known in Tanzania by Luguru ( Morogoro region ), Makonde , Wayao (in southern Tanzania) and other language groups. Arab traders and their Swahili-speaking porters ( wapangajii ) and soldiers, who penetrated into the Congo on trade routes in the course of the East African slave and ivory trade , ensured the spread . On one of the main routes, from Bagamoyo via Tabora and Ujiji to Kisangani , the flat-bar zither reached eastern Congo towards the end of the 19th century. A southern expansion route led along the Zambezi upstream and in the south of Tanzania through the Wayao area to Malawi. According to travel reports, the zeze came west of Malawi to Zambia and the Baluba in the Katanga province . Zeze square zithers are or were widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Congo, Rwanda , Burundi , Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique.

In addition to the form matches, the related names show a common origin. For the Congo, these are among others: nzenze with the Bashi in the province of Sud-Kivu , enzenze with the Bira in the province of Ituri , luzenzu with the Baluba, nzeze with the Bali in the northeast, dizeze in the Zela language (Luban language group ), dzendze with the Budu around Wamba (province of Haut-Uele ), djendje and djedji with the Mongo in the northwest, nsense with the Kumu (Komo language in the east), nzensi with the dogs in the Kivu region , isese with the Kele in the province of Tshopo and idjendje or zenze in the Kusu language (province of Maniema ). Other names for flat zithers in the region are njenje around Lake Tumba on the western border of the Congo, mongol among the Saka in the province of Kasaï-Oriental , kinanda with seven strings among the Moliro in the province of Katanga , dyedye with the Holoholo on the Congolese shores of Lake Tanganyika , bongele, bonguele and bongwele among the Ngando (Ngandu) and Mongo in the north of the Congo, also akende, ifata, ikole, keke and oda . In his dissertation from 1958, Ferdinand J. de Hen lists 40 ethnic groups of flat zithers in Western European museums for the Congo alone, at least 30 of which are named with the word context zeze .

Enzenze and enzenzya are names used in Uganda for an instrument with (two to) three strings in the Bakonjo . In the enzenze, one string runs over three frets, the other two run past the sides and are each held at a distance from the string carrier by an inserted twig at one end and a porcupine stinger at the other end. In Malawi, the very rare flat zither is called sese in Chiyao and zeze in Chichewa . A mouth-reinforced friction bow played only by men in the lower Shire region is called nyakazeze . Alan P. Merriam (1977) mentions the two-string lusese , which used to be widespread in eastern Congo and which the villagers only remember as a musical instrument used by the old men.

In the Comoros , a simple form of a box zither with a few strings is known under the name ndzenze , which consists of a long rectangular body made of smooth boards with a round sound hole in the middle of the top and a substitute for the Malagasy valiha made of bamboo or the more elaborate one Box zither representing marovany .

origin

One-string flat-bar zither with coconut resonator, probably from the Indonesian island of Sumba . Tropical Institute Amsterdam, before 1939. Walter Kaudern (1927) uses this type (“Type D”) as the original form of the Sulawesi flat-bar zithers.

While the recent history of the expansion of the flat zithers can be traced relatively precisely, the original origin of this type of instrument offered a wide field for speculation. Until the middle of the 20th century, the assumption prevailed that the flat bar zither had been imported from Southeast Asia via Madagascar. Since then it has been considered more likely that there were direct transoceanic contacts between Southeast Asia and the East African coast in the 1st millennium AD and that the flat-bar zither only came to Madagascar from here as an "African musical instrument" and was further developed there. Norma McLeod (1977) suspects that seafarers who had come from Borneo spent some time on the east coast of Africa before going to Madagascar. Although a direct crossing on the 6,000-kilometer route through the Indian Ocean from Southeast Asia to Madagascar because of Südäquatorialstroms appears in North Winter as possible, is nonetheless a northern shipping route that the North Equatorial Current followed and the Somali current and stopovers in Sri Lanka , India and East Africa than more likely. On this route, seafarers from the 5th to 7th centuries could have reached Madagascar south along the East African coast, after having previously developed a kind of African-Indonesian culture on the East African coast. This is also supported by some Bantu-language names of staple foods (millet, beans) in Madagascar. Another indication of the double origin of the Malagasy stick zithers is the name jejy voatavo (or dzedzivoatavo ), made up of the Swahili word jejy (from zeze ) and the Malagasy word voatavo ("calabash"), for a stick zither in the west of the island.

Flat bar zither sulepe from the Indonesian island of Halmahera with symmetrical string carrier. Called “Type N” by Walter Kaudern (1927). Typologically, the Sumba rod zither and the African zeze depicted relatively far away from above .

Noticeable organological similarities with instrument types from the Malay Islands were found in addition to the stick zithers in certain xylophones , pike lutes and hourglass drums . A xylophone called marimba from the Tanzanian Zaramo has, instead of the calabashes common in the West African balafon , a rectangular wooden box under each soundplate as a sound box on which all the plates rest. This corresponds to the old Javanese xylophone gambang kayu (cf. gangsa ) and today's Javanese metallophone saron with bronze sound plates. For the tube spit violin endingidi in Uganda, which has been known since the end of the 19th century , however, it is assumed that it derives from Chinese models such as the erhu . Swahili traders may also have brought them with them from the coast. The large hourglass drums ngoma and fimkhang'u of the Pangwa in the southern Tanzanian Njombe region (on Lake Malawi ), which are held between the knees by the standing player, are reminiscent of the kundu known from the music of New Guinea .

For the above-mentioned East African musical instruments there are well-founded theories of origin in individual cases. In addition, at the beginning of the 20th century , representatives of cultural circles propagated cultural affinities that had arisen due to the migration of peoples across the continents, by comparing individual cultural elements with one another. The founder of this now outdated theory, Leo Frobenius , connected 1898 with the seafaring Malay, who headed for the East African coast in the 1st millennium, among other things, the introduction of the Malagasy bamboo zither valiha , a trough zither occurring in Tanzania with calabash resonator and a pluriarc in the Congo. Furthermore, the West African harp lute kora , spar xylophones and slit drums in general should go back to Southeast Asian parallels. The investigation of functional requirements, which Frobenius did without, could have shown that in most cases, in which there is a certain similarity of form, it is at best parallel cultural achievements. In contrast, the immigration from Malay to Madagascar postulated by Curt Sachs (1938) in a description of the Malagasy musical instruments could later be confirmed by lexicostastic methods. Jaap Kunst (1960), who suspected that the metal impact idiophone kemanak in Indonesia had an origin in the ancient Mediterranean region, and Arthur Morris Jones (1964), who started out from Malay sailors who sailed around Cape Horn to West Africa, were still influenced by diffusionist theories and who falsely related this small, spoon-like instrument to the West African double bell gankogui .

With this, Jones overused his submitted material base and obscured the ascertainable cultural connections of Austronesian groups not only to Madagascar, but also to East Africa. In terms of music ethnology, reference is primarily made to the flat-bar zither. Walter Kaudern (1927) derives an evolution of these types from his summarizing presentation of stick zithers on Sulawesi and some neighboring islands. Starting from the mouth bow , he sees a line of development over the calabash musical bow to stick zithers with calabash resonator. He considers a stick zither from the island of Sumba , south of Sulawesi, to be the starting point for the Sulawesi stick zither types. According to Kaudern, the East African flat-stick zithers developed from a Sulawesi type with an almost straight stick placed on edge. Before Kaudern, Curt Sachs (1923) saw the simple Cambodian stave zither kse diev (referred to as “sadiu” by Sachs, meaning sadiev ) as the first development step following the musical bow. The kse diev , which is rare today, is probably the oldest surviving Cambodian stringed instrument. It consists of a thin straight rod that is bent up at one end and at the other end of which the string is stretched on a wooden tuning peg. The calabash half-shell is tied near the tuning peg.

Flat rod zithers are only found in Southeast Asia (on Sulawesi and the Indonesian islands further east) and in East Africa, while simple round rod zithers are used in folk music in India (and with villadi vadyam , a musical bow that is very rare in India). The kinnari, known from central and southern India, is one of the round rod zithers, with two (previously three) whole calabashes attached under a bamboo string carrier. As with the zeze , the resonators are connected via an attached calabash collar and, as there, the string is shortened with the fingers on several pegs protruding from the string carrier. Because the bamboo cane is very thin and hardly has a resonance-enhancing effect, the kinnari is counted as a stick zith and not a tube zith. Other multi-string rod zithers occurring in Indian folk music form the transition to the mature rudra vina used in North Indian classical music .

Largely geographically separated from the Indonesian flat zithers, which in the narrower sense were the model for the East African, are the round rod zithers played on the Southeast Asian mainland with attached calabash, for example in Thailand the phin nam tao , the two to five-string phin phia in northern Thailand (with a Coconut shell as a resonator) and the brŏ of the Vietnamese hill tribe Jarai in the province of Gia Lai . This has two metal strings tensioned on pegs and four (rarely six) frets at which the melody strings are tapped. The second string produces a drone tone.

All these stick zithers probably came to Southeast Asia through Indian cultural influence, where an early depiction can be found in reliefs at the Bayon in Angkor . On Indian temple walls, stick zithers are depicted from the 7th century after they had replaced the older bow harps ( vina ). A standing male musician is always shown, holding the rod zither almost vertically in front of the upper body. This way of playing differs from that of today's rudra vina, which is leaned diagonally over the left shoulder. The form and playing posture of the ancient Indian stick zither has only survived in India with the tuila , which is rarely found in the state of Odisha .

Roger Blench (2014) shortens the hypothetical migratory movement of the flat bar zither to list format: The bar zither, which originated in ancient Indian times, was first depicted in Indian temples in the 7th century, arrived in the Southeast Asian mainland with the Indianization in the 1st millennium and at the same time or a little later to the Malay Islands, where it survives on Sulawesi and disappears from the islands further west. With Malay emigrants, the stab zither first reached East Africa in the second half of the 1st millennium and, as part of the Swahili coastal trade, Madagascar from the 8th century. European slave traders distribute from 16./17. Century the stick zither on the smaller islands of the Indian Ocean. Finally, from the 18th century onwards, slave and trade caravans spread the type of instrument in inner East Africa.

Style of play

In addition to the design, the way of playing is a characteristic feature of these stick zithers. The ancient Indian stab zither is mentioned in the music-theoretical work Sangitaratnakara by Sarngadeva from the 13th century as alapini vina . How it was supposedly played can be deduced from today's folk musical instrument tuila . A fundamentally consistent playing style of the stick zithers in the second half of the 1st millennium in India, a modern stick zither in India, several Southeast Asian flat and round rod zithers and the current East African flat zithers can be recognized.

The musician holds the zeze diagonally in front of the (bare) upper body and presses the opening of the resonance body against the chest or right shoulder. With thumb and forefinger of both hands, he grips the string carrier from below. With the fingers of his left hand he shortens the melody string leading over the upper edge, while at the same time he alternately strikes the strings that run over the side of the stick with his left thumb. He strikes the melody string with the middle finger of his right hand, moving back and forth. Striking the strings is common in East Africa, only in Madagascar they are struck or plucked.

As with the alapini vina , the tuila and the Southeast Asian rod zithers, the calabash of the zeze is moved close in front of the body or placed on the body to partially or completely close the opening and thus highlight individual overtones . A corresponding modulation of the sound is achieved with calabash musical bows and the Cameroonian mvet bridge harp .

The zeze accompanies songs and dances for entertainment. Not only their shape, but also some musical traditions point to Asian influences. The drone , which is constantly added to the melody - for example with the Wayao in Malawi - and which leads to harmonious tone sequences, comes from the Asian way of playing.

literature

  • KA Gourlay, Ferdinand J. de Hen: Zeze . In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments . Vol. 5, Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, p. 375
  • Gerhard Kubik : East Africa. Music history in pictures . Volume 1: Ethnic music, delivery 10th German publishing house for music, Leipzig 1982
  • Ulrich Wegner: African string instruments. (Publications of the Museum für Völkerkunde Berlin. New series 41. Department of Ethnic Music V) Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin 1984

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, catalog pp. 203-209
  2. ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, pp. 29–32
  3. ^ Norma McLeod: Musical Instruments and History in Madagascar. In: Nino Pirrotta (Ed.): Essays for a Humanist. An offering to Klaus Wachsmann. The Town House Press, New York 1977, pp. 189-215, here p. 198
  4. ↑ Gerhard Kubik, p. 112f
  5. ^ Gerhard Kubik, 1982, p. 112
  6. ^ A b Roger Blench: The Morphology and Distribution of Sub-Saharan Musical Instruments of North-African, Middle Eastern, and Asian, Origin. In: Laurence Picken (Ed.): Musica Asiatica. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, p. 167
  7. ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, p. 30
  8. ↑ Allan P. Merriam: Musical Instruments and Techniques of Performance among the Bashi. (1955) In: Ders .: African Music in Perspective. ( Critical Studies on Black Life and Culture , Volume 6) Garland, New York 1982, p. 175
  9. ^ Sibyl Marcuse : Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world . Country Life Limited, London 1966, p. 342
  10. ↑ Sibyl Marcuse, 1966, p. 289
  11. ↑ Sibyl Marcuse, 1966, p. 163
  12. ^ KA Gourlay, Ferdinand J. de Hen, 2014, p. 375
  13. ^ Ferdinand J. de Hen: Contribution to the knowledge of the musical instruments from the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Ururundi . (Dissertation) University of Cologne 1958, slightly expanded version published: Self-published, Tervuren 1960
  14. ^ Sibyl Marcuse, 1966, p. 173
  15. ↑ KA Gourlay: Enzenze. In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 2, Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, pp. 232f
  16. ↑ Moya Aliya Malamusi: Stringed Instrument Traditions in Southern Malaŵi. In: African Music , Vol. 7, No. 3, 1996, pp. 60-66, here p. 61
  17. ^ Alan P. Merriam: Music Change in a Basongye Village (Zaïre) . In: Anthropos, Volume 72, Issue 5/6, 1977, pp. 806-846, here p. 814
  18. ↑ Patrice Cronier: Les instruments des musiques traditional mahoraises. IFM de Dembéni, Mayotte 2009, pp. 1–26, here p. 20
  19. ↑ Introduced by Indonesia together with other material cultural assets such as outrigger canoes and architectural forms, which are said to have been the model for the stone architecture of Greater Zimbabwe . See James Hornell: Indonesian Influence on East African Culture. In: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 64, July – December 1934, pp. 305–332, here p. 319
  20. ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, p. 32
  21. ↑ Dagmar Bechtloff: Madagascar and the missionaries. Technical-civilizational transfers in the early and final phase of European expansion efforts. Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2002, p. 66f
  22. ^ Robert Dick-Read: Indonesia and Africa: questioning the origins of some of Africa's most famous icons. In: The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, Vol. 2 No. 1, July 2006, pp. 23–45, here p. 32
  23. ^ Norma McLeod: Musical Instruments and History in Madagascar . In: Nino Pirrotta (Ed.): Essays for a Humanist. An offering to Klaus Wachsmann . The Town House Press, New York 1977, pp. 195, 199
  24. ^ Roger Blench: The Morphology and Distribution of Sub-Saharan Musical Instruments of North-African, Middle Eastern, and Asian, Origin. In: Laurence Picken (Ed.): Musica Asiatica. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, p. 169
  25. ^ Gerhard Kubik: East Africa. I. Ethnic groups, languages ​​and general history. In: MGG Online, November 2016 ( Music in the past and present , 1997)
  26. ↑ Leo Frobenius : The origin of the African cultures. Verlag von Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin 1898 ( at Internet Archive )
  27. ^ Roger Blench: Evidence for the Indonesian Origins of Certain Elements of African Culture: A Review, with Special Reference to the Arguments of AM Jones. In: African Music , Vol. 6, No. 2. International Library of African Music, 1982, pp. 81–93, here p. 81
  28. ^ Curt Sachs : Les Instruments de musique de Madagascar. Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris 1938
  29. ↑ O. Ch. Dahl: Malgache et Maanyan, une comparaison linguistique. Egede Instituttet, Oslo 1951; Isidore Dyen: A Lexicostatistical Classification: the Austronesian Languages. In: International Journal of American Linguistics, Memoir, Vol. 19, 1965
  30. ↑ Jaap Art : The Origin of the Kemanak . In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 116, No. 2, Leiden 1960, pp. 263–269
  31. ^ Arthur Morris Jones : Africa and Indonesia: The Evidence of the Xylophone and Other Musical and Cultural Factors: With an Additional Chapter - More Evidence on Africa and Indonesia. (Asian Studies) EJ Brill, Leiden 1964
  32. ↑ Roger Blench, 1982, p. 85
  33. ^ Walter Kaudern: Ethnographical studies in Celebes: Results of the author's expedition to Celebes 1917–1920. III. Musical Instruments in Celebes. Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, Göteborg 1927, pp. 147–156, 293–301, especially fig. 129
  34. ↑ Gretel Schwörer-Kohl: Thailand, Laos, Cambodia. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . Sachteil 9, 1998, col. 502
  35. ^ Curt Sachs: The musical instruments of India and Indonesia - at the same time an introduction to the science of instruments. (Handbooks of the Berlin State Museums) 2nd edition, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / Leipzig 1923, reprint: Georg Olms, Hildesheim 1983, p. 86
  36. ^ Roger Blench: The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-Distance Contacts Between Oceania and East Africa . In: Julian Reade (Ed.): The Indian Ocean in Antiquity . Kegan Paul International, London / New York 1994, pp. 417-438, here pp. 427f
  37. ↑ Kinnari . The Roderic C. Knight Musical Instrument Collection ( Kinnari of the Baiga tribal group in Dindori District, Madhya Pradesh )
  38. ^ Curt Sachs, 1923, p. 92
  39. ↑ Viêtnam. Music and song of the Jörai. Production by Patrick Kersalé. PEO CD-1051, Paris 2001, tracks 15, 16, booklet, p. 24
  40. ^ Roger Blench: Musical instruments of South Asian origin depicted on the reliefs at Angkor, Cambodia. EURASEAA, Bougon, September 26, 2006, p. 5
  41. ↑ See Ferdinand J. de Hen: A Case of Gesunkenes Kulturgut: The Toila. In: The Galpin Society Journal , Vol. 29, May 1976, pp. 84-90
  42. ^ Roger Blench: Using diverse sources of evidence for reconstructing the past history of musical exchanges in the Indian Ocean. Cambridge, June 28, 2014, p. 8f (published in: African Archaeological Review , Vol. 31, No. 4, December 2014, pp. 675–703)
  43. ^ Gerhard Kubik, 1982, p. 112
  44. ^ Sibyl Marcuse: A Survey of Musical Instruments. Harper & Row, New York 1975, p. 183
  45. ↑ Pia Srinivasan Buonomo, Norbert Beyer: Vina. IV. Stick zithers. 1. Historical forms. In: MGG Online, November 2016 ( Music in the past and present, 1998)
  46. ↑ Sese . In: Anthony Baines: Lexicon of Musical Instruments . JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, p. 298
  47. ^ Gerhard Kubik: East Africa. II. Music cultures. 7. Region 7: Nyasa / Ruvuma cultural area. In: MGG Online, November 2016 ( Music in the past and present, 1997)