Combined Charging System
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Combined Charging System ( CCS; German combined charging system ) is an international charging standard for battery-electric vehicles (BEV) . The connector variants and charging methods arestandardizedin Part 3 of IEC 62196 (DIN EN 62196).
CCS is generally able to implement both direct current and alternating current charging processes with its standardized connector system. The European CCS is based on the type 2 vehicle coupling, which has been expanded with two additional DC plug poles and is referred to as "Combo 2". In principle, vehicles equipped with CCS can be charged using Type 2 and Combo 2 vehicle couplings. The charging method used in the individual case and the charging time depend on both the voltage source (performance and DC capability) and the vehicle requirements (DC compatibility and / or performance of the on-board charger).
Type 2 and Combo 2 were defined as standard plug connections in the EU for charging capacities of over 3.6 kW for alternating current and over 22 kW for direct current. In Germany, this requirement is made by the charging column ordinance . The main competitor of CCS is the CHAdeMO charging system favored by Japanese manufacturers .
history
With the development boost that electric vehicles received at the beginning of the 21st century , a network of public charging points began. Thanks to electrified long-distance routes and highways equipped with charging points, supra-regional traffic is also made possible.
Initially, electric cars were only charged with alternating current by means of a charger that was mostly permanently integrated in the vehicle , later, especially in Europe, with three-phase alternating current . A variety of plug shapes that have historically grown regionally were used for charging. In addition to various household plugs with a power of around 2.5 kW, CEE plugs (blue camping plugs) with 16 A, 230 V (3.7 kW), industrial three-phase plugs according to IEC 60309 with 32 A or rarely were used to connect to the power grid 63 A, 400 V (43 kW) are used. Although these are standardized, they are adapted to the intended power through different plug sizes, so that adapters were often required to connect the electric car to the corresponding socket .
On the automotive side, the SAE-J1772-2009 vehicle connector (type 1 connector), originally standardized in the USA in 2001, completely revised in 2009 and also widely used in Asia, also had a high market share in Europe. However, it does not allow the use of three-phase current, which is widespread in Europe, since it is only designed for single-phase. This results in limited charging power and long charging times. Public DC charging was also a concept that had not been implemented to date, and with the available plug connections, it was also not planned. The automotive industry therefore urged to achieve a uniform standard for direct current charging with the pending standardization. Coming from Japan, the CHAdeMO standard was created in 2010 with its own connector.
While in America and Europe IEC Type 1 (alias SAE J1772 / 2009) and IEC Type 2 (alias VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2) were still being developed separately, the corresponding commissions jointly pushed the technical development for direct current charging forward . In 2010 it became known that the already common signaling pins of the existing IEC types would be adopted and that two additional high-current contacts would be added on the car side to both the type 2 vehicle coupling and the type 1 vehicle coupling in order to achieve higher charging capacities with direct current. The first version of the system for international standardization according to IEC 62196-3 was submitted in January 2011 and the second in June. The working prototypes were shown to the public as part of the 15th International VDI Congress "Electronics in Motor Vehicles" on 12./13. October 2011 presented in Baden-Baden .
In March 2011, the German automotive industry in particular spoke out in favor of the EU Commission adopting the CCS2 vehicle coupling as the standard. In addition, several car manufacturers across continents (BMW, Daimler, Ford, General Motors and Volkswagen Group) had already declared at this point that they would exclusively use the now “Combined Charging System” in their electric vehicles from mid-2012. At that time, no vehicle with this connector was available. The Combined Charging System , however, should create the basis for a uniform car-side charging connector on the electric vehicles according to the efforts of German car companies in particular. This means that power sources of different power levels can be used both in the AC voltage and in the DC range. The variety of plugs at charging points and electric charging stations has been reduced. Even then, the 50 kW CCS stations introduced at the beginning did not offer any reserves in order to guarantee short charging times in the long term, even with increasing battery capacities. Tesla Superchargers have already implemented direct current charging with over 120 kW without a Combo 2 connection.
In the following year, 2012, German and US automobile groups reaffirmed that from 2017 [obsolete] only Combo 2 connections would be built into their models. The first Combo-2 vehicles with CCS as additional equipment at extra charge came on the market at the end of 2013.
The first public CCS charging station with 50 kW direct current was set up in Wolfsburg in June 2013 and thus supported the tests of the VW e-up! , which can optionally be equipped with a CCS Combo 2 connection. Two weeks later, BMW handed over the first CCS charging station in Munich, with which the tests of the BMW i3 were supported.
On January 9, 2015, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy presented a subsequently controversially discussed draft for a charging station ordinance (LSV). In deviation from the EU directive, the Combo-2 standard is made mandatory for all new DC charging points to be set up (EU: only from 22 kW). Other connections of other standards can only be installed additionally. The charging station ordinance came into force on March 17, 2016.
Audi, BMW, Daimler, Mennekes , Opel, Phoenix Contact , Porsche, TÜV Süd and Volkswagen founded the Charging Interface Initiative e. V. (CharIN e.V.), an initiative that has set itself the goal of promoting and disseminating the CCS. The car brands Tesla Motors and Volvo joined later.
At the end of 2016, the Hyundai Ioniq Elektro, a standard-equipped vehicle with CCS that can charge with up to 70 kW, came onto the market. Previously, only BMW and VW had DC charging (as additional equipment at extra cost) in their range.
In 2016, a stronger, downward-compatible CCS fast charging system with up to 350 kW charging power was presented. Electric cars with appropriately designed traction batteries can charge up to 80 percent in around 15 minutes.
CCS and Type 1 plug (America)
In North America, the Type 1 vehicle coupler ( SAE J1772 ) is used for AC charging . In contrast to the type 2 vehicle coupling, this is only designed for single-phase charging due to the power grid infrastructure that predominates there. For CCS use, type 1 vehicle couplings and vehicle plugs were also provided with an extension to include two DC poles. This design is called Combo 1. Type 1 vehicle couplings as well as the European type 2 vehicle couplings and their “Combo” DC extensions use the same communication protocols.
CCS and Type 2 plug (Europe)
CCS is standardized for European electric vehicles for use with type 2 vehicle coupling and the combo 2 vehicle coupling (type 2 vehicle coupling with two additional DC poles) and offers two charging methods (combined): alternating current charging (AC) and direct current charging (DC ). The AC charge uses up to seven contacts.
In the IEC 62196 standard , four different AC and DC charging modes were defined for the type 2 plug. Both the ability to single-phase and three-phase AC charging and DC charging via a type 2 connection have only been implemented with modifications to the European Tesla Model S. Other applications for DC charging with the Type 2 plug are not known. In most applications it is only used for single-, two- or three-phase AC charging. Which of the charging modes defined in the standard is used depends on the construction of the charging point and the design of the charging technology in the vehicle.
The Combo 2 plug standard (sometimes incorrectly referred to as "CCS2") is based on the type 2 plug pin assignment, but requires special vehicle couplings and vehicle plugs. "Normal" type 2 vehicle couplings can also be plugged into these vehicle connectors, so that only one vehicle connector is required on the vehicle for both vehicle connectors and the various charging modes. Of the actually 5 + 2 type 2 contacts, only the three grounding and signal contacts are used for CCS direct current charging with the Combo 2. The load current flows through the two additional direct current contacts. The IEC-62196 charging mode 4 is used. According to IEC 61851-1 , the charging cable and the vehicle coupling are firmly connected to the charging station and are plugged into the vehicle.
Pin assignment for Combo 2 direct current charging:
- PE… (Protective Earth) Ground conductor , coll. Earth or earth potential
- CP… (Control Pilot) for dialog between charging station and vehicle using an analog signal
- PP… (Proximity Pilot) to limit the charging current by means of resistance coding so that the charging cable used is not overloaded
- DC +… (Direct Current +) DC charging, positive pole
- DC−… (Direct Current -) direct current charging, negative pole
| Type | AC part type 2 | DC part |
|---|---|---|
| nominal voltage | 480 V | 850 V |
| Maximum charging current | 63 A | 125 A |
| IP protection class when plugged in | min. IP44 | |
| IP protection class when not plugged in | min. IP 20 / IPXXB | |
| IP protection class of the inlet when covered ( road position ) | min. IP55 | |
| standardization | IEC 62196–2 & IEC 62196–3 (Draft) |
IEC 62196–3 (Draft) |
Communication protocol
The digital communication between the DC charging station and the vehicle is described in IEC 61851-24.
| distribution | Hardware configuration | Communication protocol |
|---|---|---|
| Japan | "System A" - DC charging via CHAdeMO | "Configuration AA" - CAN-based Layer 1 communication protocol according to CHAdeMO |
| China | "System B" - DC charging via GB / T plug 20234.3-2011 | "Configuration BB" - CAN-based Layer 1 communication protocol according to the GB / T standard |
| United States | "System C" - direct current charging via combo plug type 1 or type 2 | "Configuration EE" - PLC-based layer 1 communication protocol via combo type 1 connector |
| EU | "Configuration FF" - PLC-based layer 1 communication protocol via combo type 2 connector |
For the EU Combined Charging System, the "Configuration FF" in Annex C of IEC 61851-24 must be used accordingly.
The actual steps in the communication process are applicable to all direct current processes. After activating the connection, the charging station and vehicle send their parameter list to the other side, which each carries out a compatibility check. After activating the immobilizer and the connector lock, the charging current can be switched. The charging controller / battery management system in the vehicle as the master then repeatedly determines the charging power (charging voltage and charging current) required by the DC column (slave side) at short intervals. The charging process is terminated when the battery is fully charged or by user input for premature termination. Typically, one side interrupts the charging process before 100% state of charge is reached, as further charging up to 100% would take a disproportionately long time.
Types of CCS / Combo-2 fast charging stations
With the CCS, the charger for direct current is installed externally in the charging station. Depending on the manufacturer, the vehicle is often only fitted with a low-power on-board charger (weight-saving single-phase AC emergency charger). Combo 2 can charge with up to 500 volts DC voltage (currently mostly 400 V), an extension to 800 V is planned. In order to be able to charge, a special Combo-2 fast charging station is required. This reacts to signals from the vehicle control unit via CP and PP, with which voltage and DC current strength it is allowed to charge.
Current fast charging stations charge with up to 125 A (50 kW at 400 V). In some cases there are now also charging stations with up to 200 A. There are also portable CCS charging stations with 22 kW output for accelerated charging, which can be operated directly on the normal household three-phase network. There are different types of stationary CCS fast charging stations, for example:
- ABB Terra 53 (nominal power 50 kW DC , first CCS stations, installation from 2013 in Wolfsburg and Munich)
- Siemens - EFACEC (nominal power 50 kW DC , installation from 2014 along the A9 between Munich and Leipzig (Berlin))
- EBG compleo CITO BM 500 (rated power 50 kW DC , 44 kW AC , 3in1 multi-charger, on the market since 2015)
At the BMW Welt charging station in Munich (Am Olympiapark 1), both station types could be compared with one another (Siemens Efacec has since been dismantled there).
Charging characteristics for a vehicle with 18.8 kWh net capacity (BMW i3 or Volkswagen e-Golf, both makes behave in the same way, with the e-Golf charging with a maximum of 40 kW, the i3 with 50 kW):
After a short warm-up phase of just under a minute, the two station types deliver a constant DC power of 43 kW (ABB) or 47 kW (Siemens). A closer look at the gain in charge shows that ABB counts the amount of DC power supplied net, Siemens counts gross (calculated charging efficiency 43 kW / 47 kW = 91.5% ).
Ultimately, both charging systems are equally fast. The following applies to both charging systems: As soon as the battery has reached around 67% charge, the charging station continuously regulates the charging current and the charging power. For example, to go from 10% to 67%, it takes around 15 minutes. From 67% to 80% it takes another 6 minutes. Hardly any charging process takes longer than 20 minutes. At 80% to 85% charge, the quick charge is significantly slower (the rest of the charge to around 100% takes about half an hour). This means that fast charging only offers 80 to 85% speed advantages compared to AC charging.
The combined charging system should develop with the needs of the customer. In its current version, CCS 1.0, it covers the currently usual functions of AC and DC charging. As a future version, CCS 2.0 covers the needs that will be necessary in the near and medium future. The specifications and underlying standards for CCS 1.0 and CCS 2.0 are described in the table for DC charging.
| feature | CCS 1.0 | CCS 2.0 |
|---|---|---|
| power | <80 kW | <350 kW |
| tension | <500 V | 200-1000 V |
| electricity | <200 A | <500 A |
| Vehicle connection | Combo 1 or 2 (IEC 62196-3) | |
| Vehicle entry | Combo 1 or 2 (IEC 62196-3) | |
| Charge
communication |
High-level communication:
|
High-level communication:
|
| Load sharing | reactive | Reactive and planned |
| Authorization loading process | external payment | external payment and / or plug and charge (mandatory from 2020) |
| Charging station | IEC 61851-23 | |
AC, three-phase and DC charging with CCS
Battery cells are always charged with direct current. The term DC and AC charging describes the form in which the electricity is fed into the vehicle.
With single-phase AC charging , a CCS electric car can be connected directly to the mains via a household Schuko socket with a charging cable that has a type 2 vehicle coupling and an in-cable control box (ICCB) . With it, charging capacities of typically 2.3 to 3 kW can be transferred continuously; the value also partly depends on the local conditions. These cables are supplied as standard by some manufacturers. Depending on the provider, this is referred to as "standard charging" or "emergency charging". When using "blue" 16 A CEE sockets and ICCB cables or a single-phase wall charging station with a type 2 plug, 3.6 kW to 7.2 kW can be transmitted continuously. The actual charger, which rectifies the alternating current and controls the charge, is located in the vehicle. Depending on the vehicle and the equipment package, some models can only charge with a maximum of 3.6 kW.
In the three-phase rotary current charging the vehicle is per brought Type 2 cable (up to 22 kW) or by charging station side permanently installed charging cable (with type 2 vehicle clutch) at a loading column, a wall mounted charger (alias wallbox) or a "mobile cargo box" connected . The charging station or wallbox is connected to the power grid in three phases, with a "mobile charging box" usually via a red CEE plug . As with AC charging, there is a charger on board the vehicle , which rectifies the three-phase alternating current from the power distribution network and takes over the control functions ( charging process ). The charging power is typically up to 22 kW or 11 kW, which corresponds to a 32 A or 16 A connection ( IEC 60309 ). In addition to the capacity of the battery, the maximum charging current is limited by the performance and cooling of the charger in the vehicle. On the other hand, the charging station signals to the vehicle how strong the charging current may be in order not to overload the electrical installation (cables and fuse protection) outside the vehicle.
With direct current charging, direct current from the charging station is fed directly into the vehicle battery. On the vehicle side, the battery management system is able to communicate with the charging station. For example, it signals to limit the current strength or to switch off when the battery is full. However, in contrast to AC charging, the associated power electronics are located outside the vehicle in the charging station. Very high charging currents and charging capacities can be transmitted with little loss, which enables short charging times if the conditions are right. The manufacturers of cars with direct current CCS fast charging initially offered this capability mostly as additional equipment at extra cost in the three to four-digit range, but it is now installed as standard in more and more vehicles. In Asian electric cars, on the other hand, the CHAdeMO connection is integrated into the vehicle as standard, just like the Tesla Supercharger connection is standard on the vehicle.
CCS and other DC charging methods, criticism
Because of its late introduction, the Combo-2 standard competes with the likewise standardized DC charging process CHAdeMO , which was developed in Japan and is already widespread (see distribution of Chademo ). It is mainly used by Asian manufacturers and was imported to Europe with their vehicles. The number of this type of loading point in Europe is (as of the end of 2015) about half as high as in Japan, but already twice as high as in the USA. In contrast to CCS, the CHAdeMO DC auto inlet requires an additional separate connection for AC charging (mostly type 1 ). The vehicle-side interface for direct current charging is installed as standard in Asian vehicles across all brands, so the customer does not have to order it at an additional cost, as with the CCS-Combo-2. In Japan even the German BMW i3 , VW e-Golf and VW e-up! Delivered with CHAdeMO connection. In 2014, around 70% of all fast-charging electric cars were equipped with a CHAdeMO connection, and around 7% with a Combo 2 connection. In 2016, too, the list of vehicles that offer CCS is limited to just five vehicles (two from VW, one from BMW, one from Hyundai and one from Chevrolet in the USA). And even with these, CCS is often only offered as an option. The CHAdeMO charging system, on the other hand, is provided in many electric cars (see CHAdeMO vehicle list ). It was therefore criticized that German car manufacturers wanted to prevent the sale of foreign electric cars by promoting the CCS standard.
On the occasion of the second EV World Summit in June 2013, speakers from the CHAdeMO Group and the Volkswagen Group pointed out that both systems (CHAdeMO and Combo 2) do not mean competition between the two standards for direct current charging if the quick charging stations are equipped with connections for both systems (the additional costs for a further charging protocol / charging process are just 5%) - therefore we recommend e.g. For example, Nissan and Volkswagen are jointly establishing “multi-standard fast chargers” that can be used by vehicles with both CHAdeMO and Combo 2 (CCS) connections. Corresponding charging stations (mostly so-called triple chargers with AC: 43 kW + CHAdeMo: 50 kW + Combo 2: 50 kW) are already being built in many countries. In contrast, the SLAM funding guidelines of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) explicitly prohibit the installation of CHAdeMO for the installation of charging stations.
Furthermore, CCS competes with Tesla's proprietary DC fast charging system, which dispenses with additional DC contacts via the type 2 vehicle coupling for DC charging that is standardized in accordance with the EU directive, but still with up to up to via the type 2 vehicle coupling with modified connector assignment loads to 135 kW DC. Tesla offers an adapter for charging at CHAdeMO stations and, since May 2019, an adapter for charging at CCS DC stations. Tesla also announced an increase in DC charging power.
For various vehicle models (e.g. VW eGolf, BMW i3, Nissan Leaf), the available battery capacity was increased from around 20 kWh to around 30 kWh from around 2016/2017. With the maximum charging power of the order of magnitude of 50 kW available with most CCS and CHAdeMO charging stations, the 80 percent charging time is extended to over half an hour. Instead, it can now be charged for longer with a maximum charging power of 50 kW, which significantly increases the range that can be charged in 30 minutes and thus the practicality.
CCS compatible vehicles
The following vehicles can charge according to the CCS standard:
Combo 2
Standard (extract):
- Hyundai Ioniq Electric
- Jaguar I-Pace
- Opel Ampera-e
- Ford Focus Electric from model year 2017
- Ford Mustang Mach-E
- Fuso Ecanter
- Hyundai Kona electric
- Volvo FL electric
- Kia Niro electric
- BMW i3 (2018) with the battery with 120 Ah cells
- Audi e-tron
- Tesla Model 3 EU version
- Mercedes EQC
- Porsche Taycan
- Kia e-Soul from April 2019
- Honda e
- Mazda MX-30
- Mercedes EQV
- Mini Cooper SE
- MG eZS
- Mercedes eSprinter
- Mercedes e-Citaro
- MAN eTGE
- DS 3 Crossback E-Tense
- Opel Corsa-e
- Peugeot e-208
- Peugeot e-2008
- Renault D ZE
- Polestar 1
- Polestar 2
- VW ID.3
As additional equipment:
- Tesla Model X With CCS adapter and conversion in the service center
- Tesla Model S With CCS adapter and conversion in the service center
- BMW i3 with batteries with 60 Ah cells (2013–2016) or 94 Ah cells (2016–2018)
- VW e-Golf
- VW e-up!
- Seat Mii electric
- Škoda Citigo e iV
- Renault ZOE from model year 2020
- Mercedes A 250 e
- Mercedes B 250 e
- Mercedes GLE 350 de
- Mercedes GLE Coupé 350 de
Combo 1 (in the US)
- Chevrolet Spark EV (special equipment)
- Chevrolet Bolt
- Ford Focus electric
- Hyundai Ioniq electric
- Honda Clarity electric
- Jaguar I-Pace
Web links
- Solutions for electromobility.
- Technology, feasibility, acceptance of DC charging on the core axis A9 (Munich - Nuremberg - Leipzig).
- Overview of fast loading ( Memento from December 10, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
- Flex (ibler) does not work. ( Memento from October 28, 2014 in the web archive archive.today )
Individual evidence
- ↑ Directive 2014/94 / EU (PDF) of October 22, 2014.
- ^ Establishment of CHAdeMO Association. At: tepco.co.jp. March 15, 2010, accessed March 29, 2016.
- ↑ Gery J. Kissel (GM Engineer and SAE J1772 Task Force Chair): Standards Update / Global Approaches to Vehicle-Grid Connectivity. ( Memento of July 21, 2011 in the Internet Archive ). August 30, 2010.
- ↑ Christiane Brünglinghaus: Uniform connector system for electric vehicles. ( Memento from March 9, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) At: ATZ.online.de. September 16, 2010.
- ↑ Universal charging for electric cars. In: Auto123.com. November 15, 2011, accessed May 23, 2012 .
- ↑ Electric car manufacturers agree on fast charging system. At: Mein-Elektroauto.com. May 5, 2012, Retrieved May 17, 2012.
- ↑ First public 50 KW DC fast charging station inaugurated at the e-mobility station in Wolfsburg. In: Landesinitiative-Mobilitaet.de. June 20, 2013, archived from the original on September 26, 2013 ; Retrieved July 9, 2013 .
- ↑ Fast charging station opened at BMW Welt. In: BMWGroup.com. July 4, 2013, accessed July 9, 2013 .
- ↑ Forced unit: Draft for the charging station regulation of the BMWi. At: heise.de. January 19, 2015, accessed February 2, 2015.
- ↑ Charging Column Ordinance - Developed Jan 2015. At: bsm-ev.de. Retrieved February 2, 2015.
- ↑ Mission & Purpose. At: CharINeV.org. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
- ↑ CharIN e. V. welcomes member Tesla Motors. At: CharINeV.org. March 24, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
- ↑ Volvo advocates a uniform charging infrastructure. At: ElektronikNet.de. March 10, 2016, accessed March 27, 2016.
- ↑ a b Hyundai sales prospectus, as of October 2016, HMDADX16-211016 / 22.500 / 102016 INNOCEAN, p. 3.
- ↑ 400 "Ultra-Fast" 350 kW Charging Station Network Planned By 4 Automakers For Europe. At: InsideEVs.com. January 2017. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ Standardization of high-voltage charging systems: HPC. At: all-electronics.de. August 2, 2016. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ European 350 kW charging station corridor. At: heise.de. October 21, 2016. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ Combined Charging System Specification. At: charinev.org. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ Takeshi Haida: IEC / EN standardization. (PDF) In: CHAdeMO.com. October 2014, archived from the original on October 1, 2015 ; accessed on August 22, 2017 .
- ↑ MDC22 quick charger. ( Memento from December 22, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) At: Design-Werk.ch. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
- ↑ Charging infrastructure for electric vehicles. DC charging station Terra 53. At: ABB.com. (PDF; 199 kB). Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ Electric for the long haul. ( Memento from October 26, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) At: autokon.de. February 19, 2017. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ CHAdeMO.com. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
- ↑ BMW i3 Gets CHAdeMO Charged In Japan. At: InsideEVs.com. 2013. Retrieved December 19, 2015.
- ↑ In Japan, BMW i3 Gets CHAdeMO, Slow Charge Connector Hidden Under Hood. At: TransportEvolve.com. November 15, 2013, accessed December 19, 2015.
- ↑ CHAdeMO technical roadmap. ( Memento from August 3, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 5.36 MB) At: CHAdeMO.com. November 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ Germany cannot do without CHAdeMO when setting up a DC fast charging network. ( Memento of December 22, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 909 kB). At: elektrive.net. June 2014, accessed December 19, 2015.
- ↑ Foreign electric cars undesirable. At: zoepionierin.de. April 7, 2014, accessed on May 21, 2016. Quote: "VW and BMW, the only manufacturers who work with CCS, only launched the VW eUp and the BMW i3 in November 2013."
- ↑ Foreign electric cars undesirable. At: zoepionierin.de. April 7, 2014, accessed May 21, 2016.
- ↑ 2013 World EV Summit in Norway - Chademo, Nissan and Volkswagen align on promoting multi-standard fast chargs to accelerate infrastructure deployment and EV adoption. (PDF; 160 kB) (No longer available online.) In: CHAdeMO.com. June 11, 2013, archived from the original on September 25, 2013 ; Retrieved July 9, 2013 .
- ↑ SLAM - The funding nonsense. In: zoepionierin.de. January 28, 2016, accessed May 21, 2016 .
- ↑ The fastest charging station in the world. At: TeslaMotors.com. Retrieved November 29, 2015.
- ↑ Elon Musk: Tesla Supercharger V3 with over 350 kW. At: electrive.net. January 3, 2017. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
- ↑ I've just put together my perfect THE NEW ALL-ELECTRIC JAGUAR I-PACE - check it out! Retrieved March 5, 2018 .
- ↑ Ampera-e. The new electric car from Opel ... At: opel.de. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
- ↑ Ford Focus Electric Price List ( Memento from September 9, 2017 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ springerprofessional.de
- ↑ auto-motor-und-sport.de
- ↑ heise.de
- ↑ electrive.net
- ↑ tesla.com
- ↑ https://press.kia.com/content/dam/kiapress/AT/PDF2019/Pressemappe_Kia_e-Soul_M%C3%A4rz_2019.pdf
- ↑ Public wallbox with type 2 charging connection. ( Memento from May 21, 2016 in the web archive archive.today ) At: mobilityhouse.com. Accessed on May 21, 2016. Quote: "With the optional CSS charging sockets, the e-Golf can also charge via direct current at all charging stations with CSS (Combined Charging System) connections."
- ↑ 2014 Chevy Spark EV First With CCS Quick-Charge Port (As Option). At: greencarreports.com. April 26, 2013, accessed June 3, 2016.
- ↑ 2017 Ioniq Electric: Features & Specifications