Confucianism

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Confucian Temple in Kaohsiung , Taiwan
"Life and Works of Confucius", by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687

Confucianism ( Chinese  儒家 思想 , Pinyin Rújiā sīxiǎng  - "ideas of the followers of the school of scholars") is the term for philosophies and political and religious ideas that follow the tradition of Confucius and his students. Confucius' school is also known as Rujia ( 儒家 ) in China , which means school of scholars . The current term Confucianism goes back to Christian missionaries who Latinized the name of the founder of the school, 孔子 / 孔夫子 (Kongzi / Kongfuzi) in the 17th century . Confucius was venerated by his followers as a role model and ideal, and his moral teachings and his own way of life were regarded as exemplary. Alongside Buddhism and Daoism, Confucianism is one of the " three teachings ". It has shaped Chinese culture and society for many centuries and influences everyday life in China , Japan , Korea , Singapore , Vietnam and Taiwan . From the 16th century his teachings became known in Europe through reports from the missionary Matteo Ricci . In 1687, his writings were translated into Latin by Father Prospero Intorcetta.

Confucius

Kǒng Zǐ, "Master Kung", Confucius was born in 551 BC. In the city of Qufu in the Chinese state of Lu ( 魯  /  鲁 ), in today's Shandong Province under the name of Kong Qiu ( 孔丘 ). The son of a military leader came from the impoverished aristocratic Kong family and enjoyed a good upbringing. From an early age he showed a great interest in the spiritual traditions of China . Confucius worked as a teacher and advisor, at times also as Minister of the State of Lu, and spent many years in exile. From 496 B.C. For 13 years, Confucius traveled with his students through the country, studying music and ancient customs, among other things. During this time he is said to have met Laozi , another important philosopher of ancient China, who is considered the founder of Daoism. Confucius died in his homeland, probably in 479 BC. Chr.

After his death he received the highest state honors:

  • The emperor visited his tomb.
  • Statues were erected for him.
  • He received the dignity of a Chinese emperor.
  • He was assimilated to gods.

Confucius' goal in his teachings was to renew the mythological and religious value systems of the Chinese feudal empire. He saw a return to classical virtues as a way out of the political and social chaos .

Other important people

Mengzi

Mengzi is considered to be the "second sage" of Confucianism. Mengzi believed that human love and justice were human nature. Only the environment and emotions would remove him from which the positive dispositions would have to be cultivated.

Xunzi

Xunzi put his emphasis on the teaching of the ritual . In contrast to Mengzi, he saw humans as inherently bad, which is why humans must be disciplined.

The teaching

The five constants ( 五常 , Wǔ cháng )

Confucian ethics are based on the notion that the world is governed by an order that is essentially moral. The focus of teaching is on people as part of society. This should strive for moral and ethical perfection and orientate itself to the five constants ( 五常 , wǔ cháng ) or cardinal virtues. These are:

  • Humanity / charity ( 仁 , rén )
  • Justice / righteousness ( 義  /  义 , yì )
  • Ritual decency / morality ( 禮  /  礼 , lǐ ). What is meant are not rites in the western sense, but formalized behavior that characterizes a good person and forms the prerequisite for an intact social order; the rites regulate all areas of life, d. H. not only dealing with other people, but z. B. also governance and behavior towards inanimate things.
  • Wisdom ( 智 , zhì )
  • Sincerity / reliability ( 信 , xìn )

The three social obligations are derived from this:

  • Loyalty ( 忠 , zhōng  - " allegiance ")
  • Filial piety ( 孝 , xiào  - "obedience and respect for parents and ancestors")
  • Respect for decency and morals ( 禮  /  礼 , lǐ )

Because, in Confucius' opinion, order can be achieved through respect for other people and ancestor veneration , decency and morals as well as filial piety are given the most important positions in practical life. Children should continue ancestor worship, which is why childlessness is considered a great misfortune. The sum of all virtues is real humanity (Chinese 仁ren ). It alone shows who is acting loyally, fairly and honestly within the order .

Those who live according to decency and custom - that is, according to etiquette, rites and custom - and sacrifice themselves for their ancestors, change themselves for the better through this alone. This triggers a domino effect , which affects his fellow human beings and ultimately the entire cosmos , which restores the original original order. The Da Xue attributed to Confucius says:

  • If I behave correctly, the family is in harmony.
  • When families are in harmony, so is the village .
  • If the villages are in harmony, so is the province .
  • If the provinces are in harmony, so is the kingdom .
  • If the realms are in harmony, then so is the cosmos.

That is why people should always keep an eye on the community and the interests of the state.

Five elementary human relationships ( 五 倫  /  五 伦 , Wǔ lún )

Five elementary human relationships determine the philosophy of Confucius:

  • Father - son ( 父子 有 親  /  父子 有 亲 )
  • Ruler - subject ( 君臣 有 義  /  君臣 有 义 )
  • Husband - wife ( 夫婦 有 別  /  夫妇 有 别 )
  • Older Brother - Younger Brother ( 長幼 有序  /  长幼 有序 )
  • Friend - friend ( 朋友 有 信 )

From a Confucian point of view, these are essentially hierarchical superordinate and subordinate relationships. Only the friend-friend relationship can be viewed as a peer-to-peer relationship.

The five relationships are determined by the virtues of human love ( 仁 , rén ), righteousness ( 義  /  义 , yì ) and piety ( 孝 , xiào  - “ filial piety, deference”). Piety forms the basis of family life and the state. This piety is expressed in the veneration of the inherited. In contrast to the husband-wife relationship, the other relationships could even then be seen across the sexes.

The woman is subject to three obedience relationships:

  • Obedience to the father while she is young,
  • Obedience to her husband when she is married,
  • Obedience to her adult son when widowed.

Importance of study

The study is a prerequisite for understanding the order of heaven and men. However, one should only learn in addition to thinking. So Confucius says: “Learning without thinking is pointless; but thinking without learning is dangerous. "

The writings

Confucius' nine works are part of the Chinese Canon of the Thirteen Classics and can be divided into two groups: The Five Classics and the Four Books. It must be noted, however, that Confucius himself - like Socrates - did not write anything. His lunyu ("collected words") were first put together by his students.

The five classic books

The Wu jing 五 經  /  五 经 ("The Five Classical Books") all - with the exception of the Chunqiu - go back to the time before Confucius. They were found by him and used for teaching. Confucius appreciated that it also contained rules of conduct.

  1. Yijing 易經  /  易经 , the Book of Changes , is a handbook of prophecies that was probably written before the 11th century. The philosophical part, available in various appendices, comes from various commentators. They are the common root of all Chinese schools of philosophy.
  2. Shijing 詩經  /  诗经 , the book of songs , is a selection of ancient poems.
  3. Shangshu 尚書  /  尚书 (also Shujing, 書 經  /  书 经 ), the book of documents , is a collection of historical documents.
  4. Chunqiu 春秋 , the spring and autumn annals , is a chronicle of the events in China from the 8th century BC. Until the 5th century BC Chr.
  5. Liji 禮記  /  礼记 , the book of rites , contains principles of conduct for private and public events.

Originally there were six classics. Jüeh or The Book About Music and Dance is no longer available as a separate book.

The four books

The four canonical books of Confucian doctrine that the neo-Confucian Zhu Xi put together in the Song Dynasty are known under the name Sishu ( 四 書  /  四 书  - " Four Books ") .

  1. Lunyu ( 論語  /  论语  - "The Analects ") contains the doctrinal conversations of Confucius as we know them today.
  2. Daxue ( 大學  /  大学  - " The Great Learning ") [contained in the Book of Rites ]
  3. Zhongyong ( 中庸  - " measure and middle ") [contained in the Book of Rites ]
  4. Mengzi ( 孟子  - "The Book of Mengzi ")

Confucianism as a social model and state doctrine

The thinkers in the Confucian tradition are summarized in China under the term Rujia and developed ideas that have decisively shaped the entire East Asian region to this day. Despite various major breaks in history, such as the legendary persecution of the Rujia under the Chinese Emperor Qin Shihuang in the 3rd century BC. BC or the demonization of Confucius by Mao Zedong during the first forty years of the People's Republic of China in the last century, the humanistic and clear ideas that had shaped Confucius, through constant reinterpretation in the epochs, have served as the basis of the social form and the ideal of prudence and compassionate .

Confucianism formed the state doctrine of numerous dynasties; A comprehensive examination system for civil servants had existed since the Han Dynasty , one of which was a thorough knowledge of Confucian teachings. As a result of the "threat" by other world views (chin. 教 , pinyin jiào , teaching, philosophy, religion ') such as Taoism and Buddhism , a new trend developed in the Song Dynasty, the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi. This Confucianism also tolerated mystical elements, although the "Master" had once said: "If you do not yet know life, how are you supposed to understand death!" Zhu Xi put together the four books , which are an important basis for the neo Represented Confucianism of the second millennium.

While the European Enlightenment focuses heavily on the freedom of the individual, Confucianism aims at the role of each individual in the overall social network of relationships. The basis of the Confucian theory of the state is based on the claim to the moral perfecting of society. Humans live in hierarchically structured social networks in which each person has a specific social role and must behave accordingly.

The basic building block of all social networks is the family , whose head is the husband or father. The behavior of the head of the family determines the moral behavior of family members. According to the hierarchical order of the family, younger family members show respect and obedience to the elderly. The same hierarchical relationship also exists between the wife and the husband to be honored. The family members who are hierarchically under the patronage of the higher-ranking family member show him honor, respect and obedience and in return experience the love, protection and guiding function of the head of the family.

According to Confucius, every position in society brings with it privileges and duties, so that a firmly organized organism emerges which establishes structure and peace in society. Consequently, for people to live together peacefully, it is first and foremost necessary that the individual and families are doing well, in order to build on this to put the state in order. In Confucian political theory, the state is thought of as analogous to the hierarchical structure of the family. The head of state deserves this position through the special moral role model function, which was demonstrated by the protective and guiding function. In return, the head of state undertakes to create a peaceful environment, for example through food security and education.

Two mechanisms are used for governance: the ruler's moral role model function and a system of punishments and incentives. The moral role model function of the ruler is clearly preferred. If the ruler is good, says Confucius, then his subjects follow him without any threat of punishment. If, on the other hand, he acts immorally himself, the state will inevitably fall into chaos. To act morally means primarily to behave according to one's place in the social hierarchy. At the same time, Confucius admits that not all people can be guided by the moral role model function of the ruler alone. As an additional government instrument, incentives and penalties are therefore advocated for part of the population. However, these are of secondary importance and should, as far as possible, be replaced by moral models. They are also seen as far less effective, as the population without a moral example will only try to avoid the punishments without internalizing the moral principle.

Confucianism as a Religion

Confucius Temple , Taipei

The question of whether Confucianism is a religion, philosophy, science or social doctrine ignores the religious reality of East Asia. In Confucianism, for example, there are common religious elements from East Asia such as the use of the term Dao and the cult of ancestors. But Confucian elements have also penetrated many areas of social life. Confucianism is one teaching among others that are not mutually exclusive, but can be combined.

Institutionally, the centers of Confucianism were the Miao, "Confucius Temple". Here the founder and his students were ritually venerated as the creator and origin of the doctrine, as protector, by the members of the Kong clan as a mythical ancestor. Individual admirers of Confucius asked here to pass exams or to have good social relationships. The temples associated with the state often hosted large rituals for the court. In addition, the Confucius temples were often educational institutions and examination bodies of the imperial examination system, which was also ritualized.

The importance of institutional Confucianism took a severe blow from the abolition of the examination system and other changes in modernity. Although Confucianism still has some influence and the master is still ritually venerated, it is usually no longer mentioned as a separate religion. Statistics are only of little informative value about the actual distribution.

In 1995, Confucianism was declared a religion in South Korea and has around 10 million followers there. In Indonesia , Confucianism is one of the five officially recognized religions.

criticism

In the West in particular, the instrumentalization of Confucianism by authoritarian regimes such as in Singapore appears questionable. Max Weber saw Confucian ethics as the source of China's backwardness during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This was not only Weber's opinion, it was seen by the majority of Chinese intellectuals at the end of the 19th century. This led to the fact that European forms of society were seen as superior. Since capitalism was partially understood as a purely Western phenomenon, the search for a contemporary form of society in the early 20th century contributed to the acceptance of communism in China, which was believed to be the form of society of the future.

But even in earlier times, Confucianism was often heavily criticized, especially in its country of origin, China. During the Warring States period , this was mainly done by the Daoists , Mohists and, of course, the legalists , who accused Confucianism of over-emphasizing the ritual. For Zhuangzi , Confucian ethics often resulted in hypocrisy. After the unification of the empire and the fall of the first imperial dynasty ( Qin ), Confucianism became the dominant philosophy of China under the Han state doctrine and merged with elements of legalism.

The emergence of neoconfucianism finally consolidated the 1400-year-old doctrine, but the conflict with the western powers and Japan in the last 100 years of the Qing dynasty made parts of the Chinese educated elite aware of the backwardness of their country. First an attempt was made to combine Western technology with Confucian ethics (so-called "self-strengthening"). During the early 20th century, voices rose among intellectuals who saw the abolition of traditional Chinese culture as the only means of saving the country; for them this culture was the cause of China's weakness, and Confucianism was primarily the focus of criticism. Even after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 ( 辛亥革命 , Xīnhài Gémìng ), China remained the pawn of foreign powers: Japan's 21 demands showed China's weakness, as did the Versailles Peace Treaty after the First World War, which angered China's nationalists in 1919. The May 4th Movement came into being; their concern was the modernization and renewed rise of China. According to liberal and left-wing students, the goal of allowing China to regain its strength as a nation could only be achieved by smashing its own culture. - From then on, superstition, ancestral cult and filial piety were regarded as dangerous relics of the past, as "garbage" that made the progress of the Chinese nation impossible.

Barely 50 years later, their demands were to be put into practice, so to speak - in the Cultural Revolution . During the Anti-Lin and Anti-Kong Campaigns, Confucianism was declared as a relic of Chinese feudalism (according to Marxist theory) as an obstacle to the establishment of a socialist order, although the real purpose was to eliminate political opponents of Mao and the leaders of the time Communist Party Liu Shaoqi , Deng Xiaoping and Peng Zhen was. In modern Chinese literature, this criticism comes into play particularly in the works of Lu Xun : Confucianism is subtly denounced as an obstacle to China's progress. In Confucianism, human relationships degenerate into alienation and “cannibalism”, according to the short story Diary of a Madman .

See also

Single receipts

  1. ↑ Hans Steininger : The Far Eastern understanding of education and its decline in modern times. In: Winfried Böhm , Martin Lindauer (ed.): “Not much knowledge saturates the soul”. Knowledge, recognition, education, training today. (= 3rd symposium of the University of Würzburg. ) Ernst Klett, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-12-984580-1 , pp. 107–128, here: p. 113.
  2. ^ Feng Youlan (Fung You-Lan): A short history of Chinese philosophy . New York 1966, 30th edition, p. 39.
  3. ↑ See Shaoping Gan: The Chinese Philosophy . Darmstadt 1997, p. 34.
  4. ^ Feng Youlan (Fung You-Lan): A short history of Chinese philosophy . New York 1966, 30th edition, p. 39.
  5. ↑ Kung-Chuan Hsiao: History of Chinese Political Thought, Volume 1. From the Beginnings to the Sixth Center, AD Ed .: Princeton University Press.
  6. ^ AT Nuyen: The 'Mandate of Heaven': Mencius and the Divine Command Theroy of political Legit-imacy . Ed .: Philosophy East and West 63.2.
  7. ^ Louis D. Hayes: Political Systems of East Asia. China, Korea, and Japan . Ed .: ME Sharpe.
  8. ↑ Weber's reconstruction of Confucianism goes back to a misjudgment, according to Wolfgang Schluchter : The emergence of modern rationalism. An analysis of Max Weber's history of the development of the Occident . Frankfurt am Main 1988, ISBN 3-518-28947-0 , p. 34, with a reference to the literature given in footnote 46.

literature

  • Martina Darga: Confucius ( Diederichs Kompakt series ). Hugendubel, Kreuzlingen 2001, ISBN 3-7205-2193-1 .
  • Hans van Ess: Confucianism . Beck, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-406-48006-3 .
  • Xuewu Gu : Confucius for an introduction . Junius-Verlag, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-88506-361-1 .
  • Chun-chieh Huang: Confucianism: Continuity and Development . transcript, Bielefeld 2009, ISBN 978-3-8376-1048-2 .
  • Confucius : Conversations. Lun Yü , translated by Richard Wilhelm. Marix-Verlag, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-86539-008-0 .
  • Confucius: Conversations (Lun yu) , translated by Ralf Moritz. Reclam, Leipzig and Stuttgart 1982, 2003, ISBN 3-15-059656-4 .
  • Confucius: School Talks. Gia Yü , translated by Richard Wilhelm. Diederichs, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-424-00696-3 .
  • Eun-Jeung Lee: Anti-Europe. The History of the Reception of Confucianism and Confucian Society since the Early Enlightenment. A study of the history of ideas with special consideration of German developments . Lit-Verlag, Münster 2003, ISBN 3-8258-6206-2 (also habilitation thesis, University of Halle [Saale] 2002).
  • James Legge : The Chinese Classics . SMC Books, Taipei 1983.
  • Gregor Paul : Confucius . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2001, ISBN 3-451-05069-2 .
  • Heiner Roetz : Confucius (series thinkers ). Beck, Munich 1995. Third edition 2006, ISBN 3-406-43929-2 .
  • Volker Zotz : Confucius . Rowohlt, Reinbek 2000, ISBN 3-499-50555-X .
  • Markus Hattstein: The world religions . Tandem, 2005, ISBN 3-8331-1406-1 .
  • Louis D. Hayes: Political Systems of East Asia. China, Korea and Japan. ME Sharpe, New York 2012.
  • AT Nuyen: The "Mandate of Heaven": Mencius and the Divine Command Theroy of political Legitimacy. In: Philosophy East & West 63.2 (2013): 113-26.
  • Kung-chuan Hsiao: History of Chinese Political Thought. Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century, AD Princeton University Press, Berlin and Boston 2015.

Web links

Commons : Confucianism  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Confucianism  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations