Sayyid Qutb

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Sayyid Qutb (1965) in court

Sayyid Qutb , also Syed Kotb , Seyyid or Sayyed Koteb ( Arabic سَيِّد قُطب, DMG Sayyid Quṭb ; born on October 9, 1906 in Muscha , Asyut Governorate ; died August 29, 1966 in Cairo ) was an Egyptian journalist and theoretician of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood . He is considered one of the most important Islamist ideologues of the 20th century. In 1966 he was tried for participating in a conspiracy against President Gamal Abdel Nasser and executed by hanging .

His fundamentalist writings made a decisive contribution to the shaping of many subsequent Islamist militant organizations and groups. These include his main work Fī ẓilāl al-qurʾān (" In the shadow of the Koran "), a 30-volume commentary on the Koran , as well as signs on the way or waymarks ( Arabic معالم في الطريق, DMG maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq ).

Qutbism describes the ideology founded by Sayyid Qutb , the central theme of which is the opposition between Jāhilīya and Islam and, for Islamic societies like Qutb, calls for the introduction or reintroduction of Sharia law as a national law. Such demands and the nature of the Jāhilīya have since remained one of the most important issues for Islamic radicalism.

Life

Early years

Sayyid Qutb was in 1906 in a village Coptic - Christian born and Muslim population and came from a middle class family. When choosing between the Koran school and the state school, the latter was chosen. In his youth he did not care about Islam; only later did he expressly admit to it. He acquired much of his knowledge of Islam from studying books. However, numerous biographies report on a religiously determined childhood of Sayyid Qutb and on the fact that he learned the Koran by heart as a primary school student.

His father was a member of the Wafd party . As a teenager, he came into contact with politics and thus with Arab nationalism through the visitors to his parents' house. After finishing school, he began studying at the Teacher Training Institute in Cairo while living with his uncle, a journalist. After successfully completing his studies, he completed his training in 1933 at Dār al-ʿUlūm ("House of Sciences"), which was then considered more progressive than the traditional al-Azhar University .

For the next sixteen years he worked for the Ministry of Education and wrote numerous proposals for the reorganization of the educational system, which, however, received no attention. At the same time he appeared as a journalist for high-circulation newspapers, as an author and literary critic. He became acquainted with the writer Nagib Mahfuz and helped him to publish his first works. In his works he processed the stages of his life. Some biographers associate his bachelorhood with his religious convictions, but it is also to be seen against the background of his closed character and lifelong sickness.

As a former member of the Wafd party, he renounced party politics in 1945 and turned into an advocate of nationalist ideas, thereby incurring the wrath of King Faruq .

Trip to the USA

In 1949 he was sent out of the country on behalf of the Ministry of Education to study the US education system for two years . He graduated from the University of Northern Colorado in Greeley (Colorado) and from Stanford University in California. The experiences during his stay and his perception of promiscuity , of racism and segregation , which also hit him as an Egyptian, as well as the "homage to money" contributed to Qutb's explicit rejection of the American way of life . In a 1951 report on his trip to America, he described the United States as a people who excelled in science and work, but remained at a primitive stage in the areas of emotion and behavior . These experiences reinforced his generally anti-Western stance, which had already begun in the early 1940s when he met the work of the French doctor Alexis Carrel . Initially not religiously oriented, he turned to Islam from 1949 .

Return to Egypt

Joining the Muslim Brotherhood in 1951 was a complete break with his past for Qutb; he now saw himself as reborn thanks to his new religiosity.

Soon he became head of a missionary section called Nashr ad-Daʿwa ("Spreading the Invitation to Islam "). Since at that time the contacts with the nationalist “Free Officers” were still under a good star, Gamal Abdel Nasser and Muhammad Nagib (Nagib was the first president after the revolution) were among his listeners before the 1952 revolution. However, when Qutb sided with the Muslim Brotherhood's supreme leader Hasan al-Hudaibi and Nasser during the quarrel , he was jailed for several months.

Opposition to Nasser, trials and execution

On October 26, 1954, when Nasser was delivering a speech to celebrate the British withdrawal in Alexandria, he was shot several times from a few meters away by a Muslim brother named Mahmoud Abdel Latif. Nasser was unharmed and had the organization dismantled on his return to Cairo. Numerous Muslim Brotherhoods were arrested and tortured, including Qutb. The sentence for Qutb, passed on July 13, 1955, was 25 years of forced labor. He had to do this initially in a state prison in Tura and then in a prison hospital. During his imprisonment he was able to write his main works Fī zilāl al-Qurʾān ("In the shadow of the Koran") and Maʿālim fī t-tarīq ("Signs on the way"). The latter font was first presented to a larger group in 1962 in the first drafts. Qutb was released from prison in 1964 through the intervention of Iraqi President Abd al-Salam Arif , who was then on a state visit to Egypt. His book Signs on the Path was published, but banned by the censors , allowed again and banned again after the fifth edition.

After being re-charged for participating in a conspiracy against Nasser, Qutb was sentenced to death by hanging in a trial. The sentence was on August 29, 1966 enforced .

ideology

Jahilīya, the un-Islamic state of "ignorance"

The concept of Jāhilīya plays a central role in Qutb’s thinking . Originally, this term referred to the time of "ignorance" before Islam on the Arabian Peninsula. In the tradition of thought that goes back to Ibn Taimiyya , the term is also used for a state that can arise at any time when a society deviates from Islam. Qutb took up this thought again, called Egyptian society not Islamic, but jāhilī and said that the Muslim societies had fallen back into such a state of jahiliyya in his time: the people no longer adhered to the guidelines of Islam and fell into disuse thus in his view the pre-Islamic "ignorance" and ignorance.

Qutb concluded that there was only one criterion for the division into an either Islamic or non-Islamic (Jahilitic) society: The Islamic society is the one in which the Sharia is fully implemented by all means, including violence. On the way to the elimination of the Jahilīya , Qutb recommended the withdrawal from un-Islamic culture, self-purification and liberation from the traditions and ideas of Jahilite society. If individuals had internalized the right beliefs, they would form an independent society. As with the domino effect, the community of Muslims should grow and each one should fertilize another with thoughts.

Hākimīya and ʿUbūdīya

Two other terms are central to Qutb's thought: ʿUbūdīya , bondage, understood as bondage to God, and Hākimīya , understood as the sole rule of God. Both terms play a central role in his book "Signs on the Way". Qutb declared there that people had to free themselves from all bondage ( ʿUbūdīya ) to other people in order to base their life on bondage to God alone. Qutb meant that only God is worthy of worship and that all (political and religious) authority belongs to God ( al-Ḥākimīya li-Llāh ). A government can only base its sovereignty on God by ruling in his name. Only laws and actions that are derived from the sacred texts of Islam are legitimate and just. In the Jahilīya, in which, according to Qutb, all societies are found, sovereignty is transferred to people and people and parties are worshiped in the place of God. For Qutb, this is unacceptable blasphemy.

An avant-garde must tackle from within to destroy the Jāhilīya , which has taken down its deep roots all over the world. This vanguard of the Islamic movement should reinstate divine rule as its goal, to which the people are obliged.

anti-Semitism

Sayyid Qutb's essay Ma'rakatuna ma 'al-yahud ( Our Struggle with the Jews ) , published in 1950, is one of the most important programmatic texts of Islamist anti-Semitism . The 18-page text spreads the fairy tale of a Jewish world conspiracy and has had a significant influence on the development of anti-Semitism among Islamists up to the present day. Here Qutb refers to the topos that the Jews conspired "from day one" with the opponents of Islam against the early Islamic community and have since then been bitterly fighting Islam:

“The Jews of today are similar to their ancestors in the time of Muhammad : they have shown hostility since the state of Medina was established. They carried out attacks against the Muslim community from the very first day it was formed. The Jews were machinations and duplicitous to attack the first Muslims. And so they went on and on in their malice ... to remove the Muslim community from their religion and alienate them from the Koran. [...] From such creatures, who kill, massacre and slander prophets, one can expect only one thing: to shed human blood, to use dirty means to continue their machinations and their wickedness. […] Allah brought Hitler to rule over them; […] And may Allah send people (again) to inflict the worst kind of punishment on the Jews; thus he will fulfill his unequivocal promise. "

He denounces Muslims who seem to deviate from the right path of Islam as agents of Judaism, which is understood as hostile: the conflict with Western ideas of society appears to be a struggle for existence of the Islamic community. In the first part of his Koran commentary Fī ẓilāl al-qur qān , published in 1952 and largely revised and supplemented in prison by 1965, Qutb lists atheism , communism , capitalism and sexual immorality among the "malicious conspiracies" allegedly instigated by the Jews insinuates that they have made a pretense of converting to Islam in order to infiltrate the Muslim communities and to fight them from within. Qutb substantiates this conspiracy theory mainly with verses from the Koran, but also uses the Protocols of the Elders of Zion , a falsified documentation of alleged Jewish world domination plans from 1903, which he believed to be authentic. “The conspiratorial” is part of the “unchangeable nature” of the Jews and, along with cowardice, avarice, betrayal and corruption, shapes their behavior up to the present day. This assumption of an unchangeable Jewish nature has its parallel in the racism of the European anti-Semites.

In his work, Milestones , which appeared in 1964 and primarily argues in purely Islamic terms , Qutb takes up what was originally European anti-Semitism and, with the help of building blocks from the Islamic tradition and the Koran, transforms it into an anti-Semitism based on Islam. He consistently refrains from citing sources (unless to devalue) to his "findings"; the anti-Semitic stereotypes of European origin cannot of course be concealed.

Islamic anti-Semitism gained general importance in Islam in the course of the struggle with the increasing immigration of Jews to Palestine; previously it was the ideological blindness of an insignificant minority or virulent in other minorities such as the Arab Christians. Today, anti-Semitism is not only a widespread phenomenon in Islamism , but also in broad Muslim sections of the population, as Tânia Puschnerat explains:

“Islamists refer to argumentation patterns whose historical roots lie in the late 19th century in Europe; [...] and they can count on the knowledge, if not acceptance of these attitudes in large parts, especially by the Arab public of the present. "

Qutb thus represented the ideological link between European and Islamic anti-Semitism.

interpretation

Central in Qutb's thinking is the thought of the rule of God ( Ḥākimiyyat Allāh ). For Qutb, the rule of God is to be equated with the validity of Islamic law and an Islamic way of life. It is to be brought to power through jihad and preaching. Qutb's worldwide revolution to realize the rule of God fell on fertile ground with Osama bin Laden and his comrades-in-arms.

Signs on the way criticizes and condemns the democracies , the development of liberalism and capitalism . In the foreword to this book, the author states: “Today humanity is on the brink of an abyss, and not because of the threatening destruction that hovers over it. This is only a symptom of the evil and not the real illness. [...] but because of the absence of the vital values ​​that are necessary to establish a healthy life system and to develop it further. ”For Qutb, a“ healthy life system ”is subject to the observance of Sharia law . So for him there is only "healthy development" in the sense of Islam, otherwise none.

According to Qutb, the triumphant advance of liberalism and capitalism has led to social injustice in the western world, with the result that the Arab world has begun to " adopt the structures of the Eastern bloc , in particular the economic system, in the name of socialism " .

At the same time he criticized the development of his ideological counterpart:

“The collective theories (above all Marxism ), which, in view of their doctrinal character, initially exerted a great attraction on many people - in the East as well as in the West - have clearly declined in intellectual terms and are now only in the service of the state and its own Structures. But this state has nothing in common with the doctrinal principles of these ideologies. "

In these examples one can find - reduced to a slogan by demonstrating Iranian students during the 1970s: "No East no West, Islam is the best" - beyond the Islamic claim to fulfill the will of God and to be guided by what God sent down a consequence of the political and social circumstances to seek and offer a “third way”.

Impact history

The jihad groups that have sprung up in Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia since the 1970s, among other things, invoked Sayyid Qutb's thoughts, especially his use of the terms Jāhiliyya and Takfīr . In 1981, Abd al-Salam Farag justified his later participation in the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat in his book al-Farīda al-ghāʾiba ("The neglected duty"), since he described jihad as the "neglected duty" of the Muslims to be revived.

It is unclear, however, whether Sayyid Qutb himself saw every single person in Egypt as a murtadd , as an apostate, and whether he also founded the armed struggle with the takfīr of the ruler, as the "jihadists" believe. Kepel denies this, but that does not change the fact that parts of the young members of the Muslim Brotherhood sympathize with similar thoughts, while Hasan al-Hudaibi as the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood in his book "Missionaries, Not Judges" publicly speaks of the use of takfir Delimited concept. Critics of the jihadists believe that Qutb overshot his criticism of the "Muslims" because there are no Jahilite (non-Islamic) societies, but only many Muslims who are in a state of Jahl (ignorance) and need clarification. The Takfir against Muslims, which the creed had taken, was not legitimate, but even an act of unbelief.

The representatives of the government-related al-Azhar University - but not all religious scholars - were the writings of Qutb opposed to, let him be a Munharif (dissenters) explain and identified his thoughts with the Kharijites , the excommunication, the Takfir , at the time of fourth caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib should have practiced. They viewed Qutb's signposts as an inflammatory, Charijite text that must be seen in the light of the actions against the Nasser regime. Qutb is just a religious zealot who conspired against the national revolution. The goal is to harm the nation and push it back into misery. However, Qutb himself relied on Islamic tradition and refused to equate it with the Kharijites.

His brother Mohammed Qutb replied to the allegations against his brother in 1975 that he had heard him say more than once: “We are preachers, not judges. Our goal is not to impose rules on people, but to bring this one truth closer to them, that there is no God but God. In fact, people don't know what requirements this formula implies. "

Since the 1950s, some of the Muslim Brotherhood has been persecuted and arrested by the regime, others have been co-opted and gained office and dignity, and yet another part fled to other Arab countries, especially the Arab Gulf states; The latter group also includes Yusuf al-Qaradawi , the influential television preacher on the Arab satellite channel Al Jazeera . The revolutionary part of the Muslim Brotherhood that remained in Egypt, which consisted of students and academics with no future hopes, became more and more radical not only in the choice of words but also in the choice of means, especially after the defeat in the Six Day War against Israel in 1967 by the Islamists as just punishment for what, in their opinion, the un-Islamic regime was even welcomed and celebrated in prisons. Under Anwar Sadat , who was striving to change course to a pro-American foreign policy, the imprisoned Muslim Brotherhood were released as a counterweight to the Nassist left and were able to reorganize, with one part around Hudaibi coming to terms with the regime, while the radicals went underground as jihad -Groups, namely as Islamic Jihad and Takfir wa'l-Hijra , formed, infiltrated the army and carried out attacks. Relations between the Muslim Brotherhood and the regime deteriorated significantly in 1977 because of the peace agreement with Israel at Camp David , which the Sadat attacker named as the main reason for the attack on Sadat. One of the co-founders of Islamic Jihad, Aiman ​​az-Zawahiri , fought with Osama bin Laden against the USA, Israel and all who they identify as “helpers” of the “American-Zionist” plans.

Works

Islam and Islamism

  • في ظِلال القُرآن / Fī ẓilāl al-qurʾān (In the shadow of the Koran), 1951–1965, Koran commentary in 30 volumes. First part published in 1952
  • التصوير الفني في القرآن / at-taṣwīr al-fannī fī l-qurʾān (a literary treatise on the Koran), 1944/45
  • العَدَالَة الإجتِماعِيَّة في الإسلام / al-ʿadāla al-iǧtimāʿiyya fī l-Islām (Social Law in Islam), 1949
  • معركتنا مع اليهود / Maʿrakatunā maʿa l-Yahūd (Our struggle against the Jews ), 1950; again Jeddah , 1970; again Dar al-Shureq, Cairo 1989
    • English version: Ronald Nettler: Past trials and present tribulations: a Muslim fundamentalist's view of the Jews. Pergamon, Oxford & Butterworth-Heinemann 1987 ISBN 0080347916 , pp. 72-89
  • معركة الإسلام والرأسمالية / Maʿrakat al-Islām wa-l-Raʾsumāliyya (The Struggle Between Islam and Capitalism), 1951
  • السلام العالمي والإسلام / as-Salām al-ʿĀlamī wa-l-Islām (World Peace and Islam), 1951
  • دراسات إسلامية / Dirāsāt Islāmiyya (Islamic Studies), 1953
  • هذا الدين / Hāḏa d-Dīn (This Religion), 1954
  • المستقبل لهذا الدين / al-Mustaqbal li-hāḏa d-Dīn (The future of this religion), 1954
  • خصائص التصور الإسلامي ومقوماته / Ḫaṣāʾiṣ at-Taṣawwur al-Islāmī wa-Muqawwamātuhu (The Characteristics and Values ​​of Islamic Behavior), 1960
  • الإسلام ومشكلات الحضارة / al-Islām wa-Muškilāt al-Ḥaḍāra (Islam and civilization problems ), after 1954
  • معالم في الطريق / Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq
    • English: Milestones English version online ( Memento from April 12, 2003 in the Internet Archive )
    • German: Signs on the way , translated from English by Muhammed Shukri, with a foreword by Muhammad Rassoul , Cologne 2005
    • German (from Arabic, based on the 10th edition. Cairo 1983) Wegmarken , in: Andreas Meier ed., The political order of Islam. Programs and Criticism between Fundamentalism and Reforms. Original voices from the Islamic world. Peter Hammer Verlag , Wuppertal 1994 ISBN 3872946161 , pp. 194–204 (with the introduction of the ed.)

Poetry, autobiographical novels

  • مهمة الشاعر في الحياة وشعر الجيل الحاضر / Mahammat aš-šāʿir fī l-ḥayāt wa-šiʿr al-ǧīl al-ḥāḍir (The task of the poet for life and poetry for the present generation), 1933
  • الشاطئ المجهول / aš-Šāṭiʾ al-maǧhūl (The Unknown Shore), 1933
  • طفل من القرية / Ṭifl min al-qarya (child from the village), 1946

reception

  • Peter Sloterdijk (2009): “After a few chapters, the reader is dazed, almost stunned by the autohypnotic smoke of a personality who writes down their phantasms as if they were signs of a spiritual calling, while they are little more than neurotic symptoms. Even in the translation, the puritanical vibrato of the self-made theologian becomes oppressive. "

See also

literature

German-language literature

  • Sabine Damir-Geilsdorf: Rule and Society. The Islamist pioneer Sayyid Qutb and his reception. Ergon, Würzburg 2003, ISBN 3-89913-319-6 .
  • Gilles Kepel : The Prophet and the Pharaoh . Piper, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-492-03786-0 , pp. 35-71.
  • Gilles Kepel: The Black Book of Jihad. The rise and fall of Islamism. Piper, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-492-04432-8 , pp. 39-50.
  • Thomas J. Moser: Politics on God's Path: On the Genesis and Transformation of Militant Sunni Islamism. innsbruck university press, Innsbruck 2012, ISBN 978-3902811677 , pp. 81-100.
  • Muhammad Sameer Murtaza: Sayyid Qutb's hermeneutic methods and interpretation of the Qur'an using the example of Surat al-baqara. In: Karimi, Milad; Khorchide, Mouhanad: Yearbook for Islamic Theology and Religious Education. Freiburg 2012, pp. 39–61.
  • Imad Mustafa: Political Islam. Between the Muslim Brotherhood, Hamas and Hezbollah. Promedia. Vienna, 2013 ISBN 978-3-85371-360-0 .
  • Götz Nordbruch : Qutb, Sayyid , in: Handbuch des Antisemitismus , Volume 2/2, 2009, p. 663 f.
  • Armin Pfahl-Traughber: Islamist Ideology in German. An extremism-theoretical analysis of Maududi and Qutb translations. In: Armin Pfahl-Traughber (Ed.): Yearbook for Extremism and Terrorism Research 2013. Brühl 2013, ISBN 978-3-938407-62-2 , pp. 161-185.

English and French language literature

  • Olivier Carré: Mystique et Politique. Lecture révolutionnaire du Coran par Sayyid Qutb, Frère Musulman radical . Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Science Politiques, Paris 1984, ISBN 2-7246-0496-2 , ( Patrimoines Islam ).
  • John L. Esposito (Ed.): Voices of Resurgence Islam Oxford UP, NY 1983, ISBN 0-19-503340-X .
  • Fawaz A. Gerges: Making the Arab World: Nasser, Qutb, and the Clash That Shaped the Middle East. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2018, ISBN 978-0-691-16788-6 .
  • Sayed Khatab: The power of sovereignty: the political and ideological philosophy of Sayyid Qutb. Routledge, London, 2006.
  • Adnan A. Musallam: From Secularism to Jihad. Sayyid Qutb and the Foundations of Radical Islamism . Praeger, Westport CT et al. 2005, ISBN 0-275-98591-1 .
  • Ronald L. Nettler: Past trials and present tribulations. A Muslim fundamentalist's view of the Jews. Published for the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem by Pergamon Press, Oxford 1987, ISBN 0-08-034791-6 , Series: Studies in antisemitism .
  • William E. Shepard: Sayyid Qutb's Doctrine of 'Jāhiliyya'. In: International Journal of Middle East Studies 35/4 (2003), pp. 521-545.

Web links

Commons : Sayyid Qutb  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Gilles Kepel: The Prophet and Pharao. Muslim Extremism in Egypt . Al Zaki Books, London 1985, p. 38 f.
  2. ^ A b c Olivier Carré (1984): Mystique et Politique - Lecture révolutionnaire du Coran par Sayyid Qutb, Frère Musulman radical. Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des science politiques .
  3. ↑ a b Gilles Kepel: The Prophet and Pharao. Muslim Extremism in Egypt . Al Zaki Books, London 1985, p. 39
  4. ^ Götz Nordbruch: Qutb, Sayyid. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 663 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  5. ↑ a b Gilles Kepel: The Prophet and Pharao. Muslim Extremism in Egypt . Al Zaki Books, London 1985, pp 41
  6. ↑ Gilles Kepel (1985): The Prophet and Pharao - Muslim Extremism in Egypt . London: Al Zaki Books. P. 42
  7. ↑ See Shepard 523.
  8. ↑ Gilles Kepel (1985): The Prophet and Pharao - Muslim Extremism in Egypt. London: Al Zaki Books. P. 46 f.
  9. ↑ Hans Jansen : Mohammed. A biography. (2005/2007) Translated from the Dutch by Marlene Müller-Haas. CH Beck, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-56858-9 , p. 92.
  10. ↑ Thomas J. Moser (2012): Politics on the path of God: On the genesis and transformation of militant Sunni Islamism, Innsbruck: innsbruck university press, 2012, pp. 96–99.
  11. ↑ Hans Jansen : Mohammed. A biography. (2005/2007) Translated from the Dutch by Marlene Müller-Haas. CH Beck, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-56858-9 , pp. 92-93.
  12. ↑ See Khatab: The power of sovereignty . 2006. pp. 47-56.
  13. ↑ Gilles Kepel: The Prophet and Pharao. Muslim Extremism in Egypt . Al Zaki Books, London 1985, pp 46-52.
  14. ↑ Kepel, G. (1995), p. 44ff Literature: Kepel, Gilles (1995): Der Prophet und der Pharao. Munich, Piper Verlag
  15. ↑ Klemens Himpele: Antisemitism in Arab States , Cologne 2004, pp. 39–41, ISBN 978-3-8364-5833-7 ; Götz Nordbruch: Qutb, Sayyid. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 663 f., And Michael Kiefer: Ma'rakatuna ma'a al-yahud (Sayyid Qutb, 1950) . In: ibid., Vol. 6: Publications . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-030535-7 , p. 444 f. (both accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  16. ↑ Jeffrey Herf: Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World . Yale University Press, New Haven / London 2009, pp. 255 ff., Own translation
  17. ^ Götz Nordbruch: Qutb, Sayyid. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 663 f. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  18. ↑ Malte Gebert: Fi Zilal al-Qur'an (Sayyid Qutb, 1952) . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 6: Publications . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-030535-7 , p. 198 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  19. ^ Tânia Puschnerat: Enemy images and radicalization processes. Elements and instruments in political extremism. Anti-Zionism in Islamism and right-wing extremism . Berlin 2005, p. 53 ff.
  20. ↑ a b Ma'alim fil Tariq: Wegzeichen , 1964. Quoted from Gilles Kepel: Der Prophet und der Pharao , Piper Verlag, Munich 1995, p. 43.
  21. ↑ See Wilhelm Dietl : Heiliger Krieg für Allah , Munich 1983, p. 123
  22. ↑ See Kepel, 1995.
  23. ↑ Kepel, 1995, p. 64.
  24. ↑ Complete list in Gilles Kepel (1985): The Prophet and Pharao - Muslim Extremism in Egypt , pp. 68f.
  25. ^ Peter Sloterdijk, Lines and Days. Notes 2008–2011 , Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 2013, p. 143. The note, written in 2009, relates to reading Milestones (Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq).
personal data
SURNAME Qutb, Sayyid
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Egyptian journalist, theoretician of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood
DATE OF BIRTH October 9, 1906
PLACE OF BIRTH Muscha , Asyut Governorate
DATE OF DEATH August 29, 1966
Place of death Cairo