Khewra Salt Mine

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Khewra Salt Mine
General information about the mine
Khewra Salt Mine - Crystal Deposits on the mine walls.jpg
Exhibition in the main gallery (7th salt floor)
other names Mayo salt mine
Mining technology Underground
chamber construction
Overburden 0 t
Funding / year 350,000 t
Information about the mining company
Operating company Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation
Employees 865
Start of operation 1872
End of operation circa 2350
Funded raw materials
Degradation of Halite (rock salt)
Halite (rock salt)

Stock name

Salt dome
Mightiness 150 meters
Raw material content 99%
Greatest depth 730 meters
overall length 40 kilometers (total)
Geographical location
Coordinates 32 ° 38 '52.6 "  N , 73 ° 0' 30.2"  E Coordinates: 32 ° 38 '52.6 "  N , 73 ° 0' 30.2"  E
Khewra Salt Mine (Pakistan)
Khewra Salt Mine
Location of the Khewra Salt Mine
Location Salt mountains
local community Khewra
Province ( NUTS3 ) Punjab
District Jhelam
Federal Republic Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Country Pakistan

The Khewra Salt Mine is located in northeastern Pakistan in the Punjab Province near Khewra , the second largest city in the Jhelam District . This salt mine is the largest and oldest in Pakistan and the second largest in the world by supplies. The annual production of this mine is 350,000 tons of high purity halite . The reserves are estimated at 82 to 600 million tons. The legend puts the knowledge of the salt deposits on the discovery by the troops of Alexander the great in the year 326 BC. The use of the reserves in the salt mountains has been known for a long time. Commercial exploitation and trade began during the Mughal Empire (1524 to 1752). Today's main tunnel was opened in 1872 during the British era by the English mining engineer H. Warth. After Pakistan's independence in 1947, the state increasingly took over production at the country's largest salt discovery site from the British. The mine has been a tourist attraction since 2000 with around 250,000 visitors annually.

Geography of the Pakistani Deposits

The Pakistani salt deposits are all located in the Punjab . Three of them are in the salt mountains with white and red halite colored by iron ions in Cambrian rock. A deposit located west of the Indus with two mining sites is of tertiary origin and provides a white to gray product.

Khewra

Entrance to the mine

The Khewra salt mine is located in the north of Pakistan's Punjab, the access is ten kilometers on the slope of the salt mountains to the Jhelam River . Khewra is approximately 160 kilometers south of Islamabad and 260 kilometers north of Lahore .

In addition to the salt deposits, limestone , coal and gypsum are extracted from other mines in this low mountain range. The rock salt and other minerals are part of the evaporite of a surface water that evaporated 800 million years ago, the current thrust of which is located in the subsurface between the Indian and Eurasian plates . This leads along the only slightly rising ductile saline evaporite layer from the Billianwala subformation. The local conditions in the mine are due to the widening of the thrust front and the resulting length of the rock. This leads within a narrow strip to the salt deposits (partly separated by clay layers) of unusually large thickness .

The time of origin was proven in the investigations for a "Geological Survey for India". This report was prepared by paleobiologists and geologists in the 1930s and 1940s. Birbal Sahni found seeds from blankets and naked samers , as well as insect inclusions from the Cambrian, inside the mine .

The entrance to the Khewra mine is 288 meters above sea level. The stock covers an area of ​​110 square kilometers and has a total thickness of 150 meters in seven seams. On the southern flank of the salt mountains, the entire stock is several hundred meters thick. From the height of the entrance, the tunnels go 730 meters deep into the mountains. The dismantling is carried out according to the cavity pillar method (chamber construction). The company puts the stock for the mining site at 6,687 billion tons. The lease area under which the facility is located is 3398.53 acres , corresponding to 1375 hectares. The Khewra salt is white, reddish and red and has an average purity of 96%.

In addition to the rock salt deposits that are extracted from underground mining, there are also “open deposits” of brine near Khewra near Dharyala.

Expressway to the mine

Khewra is accessible from the M2 Lahore – Islamabad motorway. From the Pind Dadan Khan exit (Lilla cross), the “Lillafernstrasse” leads 30 kilometers in the Jhelam valley along the mountain slope. A road on the slope leads through the town of Pind Dadan Khanh into the mountains of the salt mountain range (the mineral-rich mountain system) to Khewra and the mine entrance, the further course of the road north over the salt mountains leads to the Indus valley .

Warcha

The second most popular salt extraction site in Pakistan is the southwest situated on the slopes of the mountain salt Warcha salt mine ( Warcha Salt Mine: 32 ° 24 '46 N, 71 ° 57' 57 E ). For the annual production for 2013/2014, the company cites 696,979 tons as the mining volume and 665,577 tons as the sales volume. In this mine, the extraction has increased significantly compared to that in Khewra in recent years. The occurrence is in an irregular and broken salt dome. The pit's five seams have a maximum thickness of 15 meters. The Warcha plant is said to have the best rock salt in the world in terms of purity and color. The salt is white to slightly reddish with an average purity of 98%. The white salt is sold directly as table salt, it is transparent and crystalline. The mine is located in the Khushab District and covers 3601 acres of leasehold . The mining takes place here also in salt chambers using the cavity pillar method. There remain pillars of rock salt that support the weight of the protruding mountain. The company claims that the mine has more than a billion tons.

Kalabagh

A third and currently second largest mining site in Pakistan is located on the western slope of the salt mountains near Kalabagh on the right bank of the "Luni Wahan nullah". The mine is located 296 kilometers from Islamabad or 50 kilometers from Mianwali. The access is on the slope of the Indus Valley ( Kalabagh Salt Mine: 32,945 N, 71,567 ) at 232  m . The salt in Kalabagh lies in irregular and twisted seams and is for the most part still extracted manually in chamber construction using the cavity pillar method. The tallest chamber is 260 feet (80 meters) high. In the Kalabagh mine, salt is extracted manually and separately in 13 types in different colors between white and pink. The mining amount has an average purity of 96%. The annual mining volume (2001/2002) is given as 33,462 tons with a stock of just under a billion tons. For 2013/2014, the dismantling volume was 106,271 tons and this was also sold in this amount. 3837.81 acres (1550 hectares) are named for the mine area and are located on the slope of the Indus at Wanda Kukran Wala.

The historic Salt Mine of Kalabagh with some older mining sites is located near the village of Wanda Kukran Wala along the Indus. “At Kara Bagh at 33 ° it cuts [the Indus] through a mountain range, which Elphinstone calls the Salt Mountains. The salt occurs in it in beds 1 'thick, which are separated from one another by thin layers of clay. With the exception of these mountains cut by deep gorges and about 1,800 feet above sea level, the Punjab district is quite flat. "

Jatta

Another salt mining site in Pakistan (Karak District) is the Jatta Salt Mines (in Jatta and Bahadurkheil). These two mining sites are located 217 kilometers from Islamabad and Kohat on the western slopes of the Indus Valley outside Punjab. They have a few billion tons of salt in a geological limestone horizon. This part of the Pakistani salt deposits is the youngest and dates back to the Tertiary period between 26 and 66 million years ago. This pit is located on two leases totaling 8,449.92 acres . On average, this pit has a purity of 92% sodium chloride. The purity is very different within the deposit, so there are remarkable salt chambers with a purity of more than 99% sodium chloride, without traces of foreign salts. The color of the tertiary salt finds stored here is white, but also light to dark gray or petrol in color due to inclusions of clays , depending on the location . In addition, the mining sites differ in their different textures from crystalline salt finds to salty-earthy salt sites. Salt lamps are made from blocks of salt from this pit, as the density of the blocks of salt offers good light output in shades of blue and green to yellow and white. Likewise in the chamber construction (cavity pillars), 4472 tonnes per year were extracted in 1999/2000 and 72,539 tonnes per year in the period 2013/2014 of crude salt.

The second associated PMDC facility is the “Bahadur Khel / Karak Salt Mines”, which is located 265 kilometers from Islamabad and 112 kilometers from Kohat. Here light to dark gray clayey salt is obtained with an average purity of 98%. The thickness of the rock salt seams in the Bahadurkhel area is up to 100 meters and in the area of ​​Jatta and Karak it is up to 30 meters.

history

Salt mining site from the Mughal period
Tunnel expansion of the old (pre-British) times

The deposit of the Khewra mine is part of the salt mountain range, which was formed as an evaporite through evaporation of a former surface water. The low mountain range lies at a width of 30 kilometers and a length of almost 300 kilometers southwest of the Himalayas in front of the mountain ranges of the Karakoram between Afghanistan and Pakistan. These plateaus and high mountains follow the pressure of the Indian against the Eurasian plate. A historical source says: "A mountain range stretching from the Indus to the Hydaspes, which is continuously formed from salt, offers an inexhaustible supply of this and, since the salt monopoly is strictly enforced, contributes to the prince's enrichment."

Legend attributes the discovery of the salt supply in Khewra to the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great in 326 BC. Chr. To. The army was waiting on the Jehlam River about 35–40 kilometers from Khewra for the battle with Raja Porus. The army horses licked the rocks of the salt mountains to meet their needs. The fighters noticed that ailing and tired horses recovered afterwards. The knowledge of salt deposits is likely to be older, however, archaeological evidence suggests mining for centuries before Christian times. In the salt mountains there are some temples that go back to the 6th century BC. The superficial salt washes have been used for centuries to extract vital (rock) salt.

The expanded commercial mining and long-distance trade strengthened during the Mughal Empire , which existed between 1526 and 1858. The salt was distributed to markets as far as Central Asia. At that time, salt was a rare and valuable food in the wider area. It was particularly essential for rice cooking, and it was easily accessible in Punjab itself. For the possessing prince an excellent profit could be achieved with the deposit around Khewra. With the fall of the Mughal Empire, the Sikhs (Kingdom of Lahore) took over further mining and the salt trade. Hari Singh Nalwa (1791–1837), military leader of the Sikhs and governor in Kashmir , Peshawar and Hazara shared the ownership of the salt mountains with Gulab Singh (1792–1857), the rajah of Jammu . The latter controlled the Warcha mine, while the other was under Khewra. Already during the Sikh rule , the discharge of the camp was used as table salt, but also as a means of payment and a source of income. "According to Capitaen Murray, the income of the State of the Sikhs (or the Kingdom of Lahore) is 25,809,500 rupees."

Due to disputes in the families of the Maharajas, the British succeeded in exerting influence in the Sikh territory from 1849 and from 1872 they began to take over the mine and exploit it for themselves. Lord Mayo, the Viceroy of India from 1869–1872 visited the mine. In his honor, the Khewra salt mine is also named " Mayo Salt Mine ". Up to this point in time, salt mining was mainly carried out from superficial layers of salt in tunnels that ran irregularly in narrow tunnels and were therefore uneconomical to expand. These narrow entrances made it difficult and endangered the movement and work of the salt workers. The only way to get to the tunnels was over difficult rocky terrain and there were no on-site storage facilities for mined salt. The water entry in the pit was low and bad.

The English mining engineer H. Warth worked out proposals to improve mining in Khewra in 1872 in order to remedy the difficulties that existed at the time and to increase the amount of mining. The new pipeline initially had an access road leveled and warehouses were built to temporarily store and process the extracted salt. Measures have also been taken to ensure an adequate supply of water. A major innovation was the creation of a main tunnel as a new structure for access to the various tunnels. This main tunnel, which is still in use, was created by Warth and provides access to the various mining sites in the chamber construction . The salt seams are expanded into cavities that are supported by permanent salt pillars. The British also introduced new mining techniques for salts. So Warth introduced hand-operated drills, as they were already known to him from gypsum mining. The technologies there could be adopted because of the similar characteristics of both raw materials. 14 resident families, who had previously traditionally operated salt mining, received a license for further mining from the British. In order to control the illegal trade and mining, severe penalties were imposed on salt smuggling. With the limitation of the rights to work in the pits, skills and abilities in family tradition were secured in order to control the amount of mining. These privileges for the licensed families continued to be taken over and confirmed by today's Pakistani mine management.

production

Lumps of salt from the Khewra mining area
Salt crystals of different color depth

The total stock of halite in Khewra is estimated at 82 million tons to 600 million tons, depending on the place of origin. If you add up the length of all the tunnels leaving the main tunnel, 40 kilometers are reached.

The rock salt from Khewra and the other two mining sites in the salt mountains is a very pure product. The values ​​differ slightly depending on the deposit, the tunnel operated and the individual mining location. In addition to the raw material content of between 90 and 99% sodium chloride, there are also differences in traces in the raw product in addition to moisture, calcium sulphate , magnesium sulphate and potassium sulphate , there are colored iron (III) chloride and chlorides as well as sulphates of the heavy metals zinc , copper and manganese , Chrome and lead . The "Khewra salt" is traded under the name Himalayan salt, especially in Europe and the USA , another name is Lahore salt. Depending on the inclusions and storage locations, the salt obtained is colored flesh red (95.96% NaCl) to pink (98.86% NaCl) or white-gray (98.65% NaCl) with iron ions, but there are also transparent crystal blocks.

The deposit in Khewra has tunnels on 19 levels, today's mining takes place on 17 levels, of which eleven are below 0  m (zero level). The entire deposit consists of an irregularly arranged salt dome . The rock salt is arranged in seven seams, with bands of white and red salt alternating in detail. From the mine entrance, salt mining goes down to a depth of 730 meters into the mountains. Rock salt is extracted using dry mining (using the "cavity and pillar method"). As a result, only half of the crude salt is broken down as a cavity, while the pillars on which the weight of the mountains above rests remain from the other amount of rock salt. The temperature inside the mine is constant throughout the year at 18 ° C to 20 ° C. The salt is collected at the point of degradation and Loren discharged from the mine. The existing track system was created during the time of British rule with a narrow-gauge railway with a gauge of 610 mm .

Daily salt production table

In the early years of British rule in the 19th century, 28,000 to 30,000 tons were mined annually. This amount increased in the five-year period ending 1946/1947 to 187,400 tons per year and for the two-year period 1949/1950 136,824 tons per year are given. The increase in production was based on the progressive implementation of the systematic work of H. Warth. For 2003 an annual output of 385,000 tons of salt is reported. More than half of Pakistan's rock salt production came from Khewra. With constant mining, the deposit would be sufficient for another 350 years. A further increase in Pakistani rock salt production is currently being covered by the other salt pits.

The Khewra Mine workforce consists of 685 miners, all of whom come from those 14 families privileged by the British. This tradition was maintained by the Pakistani state company to manage the mine with the long experience of the workforce. The mine is a “maze” of glittering chambers of the tunnels on 17 active floors out of a total of 19 and the rooms are enlarged by controlled explosions. Small groups of workers drill 1.5-meter-deep holes in the salt walls and fill them with gun powder like when loading muskets. The holes are plugged with explosives, detonated and detonated. When the dust has settled, the lumps of salt are collected.

Reddish khewra halite chunk

The extracted rock salt is sold as table salt , bath salt , cattle salt or de-icing salt . It is also promoted under the (controversial) name "Himalayan Salt" and is Pakistan's best-known product. Further industrial use takes place as brine and the solid degradation product is used as a raw material for various industries in Pakistan. As early as 1938, AkzoNobel set up a plant for anhydrous soda next door . This "ICI Soda ash plant" consumes a large proportion of the Khewra salt and ICI's mountain salt products are passed on to other industrial plants. Users are tanneries and "Ittehad Chemical Limited Kala Shah Kaku". Further on-site industrial processing projects are planned.

A significant proportion of the salt extracted from the Khewra and other salt mines is exported to India, Europe and the USA in particular. It is traded as table salt in white or rosy crystals, as a powder for table salt, but also as road salt, blocks, bricks, plates or lumps of salt. Cattle salt is offered in the form of lick stones .

Decorative things such as salt lamps and tealight holders, vases, bowls and bowls, ashtrays and statues are made from crystal blocks. More recent developments of this kind are LED lamps with USB connections. These products are offered in the various color nuances and structures of the degradation product. Customers are mainly in the USA, India but also in Europe. The production of artistic and decorative salt items goes back to the Mughal era when many artists made table utensils and decorations. “The salt which this chain supplies is partly clear and transparent like crystal, and at the same time so hard that bowls for eating and other utensils are made out of it, which is why it is also widely sold in Kashmir, partly it is eastwards from brownish color and is sold in East India under the name Lahoresalz. "

In 2008 the Pakistani government decided to sell 17 profitable companies, including the " Khewra salt mines ". However, the plan was postponed. The mine is operated by the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation , founded in 1974 , a state-owned company subordinate to the government. The PMDC is an independent cooperation of the "Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources" of Pakistan and has a total capital of one billion rupees to help with activities of the mineral industry and to expand this industry.

tourism

Information board about the product and the story
Small salt mosque made of salt bricks within the mine complex
Model of the "Minar-e-Pakistan" made of salt bricks and effectively decorated with lamps

The “Khewra Salt Mine” is a major tourist attraction with 250,000 visitors annually. The expansion has been increasing since 2000. With entrance fees and purchases, visitors contribute a large part to the overall result of the mine. A part of the main tunnel was reserved for tourists, cleared of unwanted material and equipped for tourists. There are several brine swimming pools for visitors in the pit. Several salt bridges lead tourists across brine lakes. Various sights were built in the artificial cavities: the " Badshahi Mosque " was built 50 years ago in the mine tunnel from different colored salt bricks. Further attractions are the replica of the " Minar-e-Pakistan ", a statue of Allama Iqbal and a crystal sculpture with the name of Muhammad in Urdu , there are models of the Great Wall of China and the "Mall Road" by Murree . Female guides trained at the company's Khewra Women College are available to tour the mine. A reception with ticket sales, lounge with toilet and cloakroom was built for the tourists, outside the mine there is now a parking area with a restaurant and the souvenir shop, a footpath from the reception to the mine mouth has also been redesigned and mine guides are also available. Inside the mine, visitors are transported by mine train and there are dining facilities, such as the café, opposite the “Sheesh Mahal”.

Other visitor magnets inside the mine are the salt crystal models and chambers in the mine.

  • A spacious dismantling chamber is called the “Assembly Hall” and has an internal height of over 73 meters, where events are possible.
  • "Pul-Saraat" inside the facility is a pillarless salt bridge over a 25 meter deep salt water pond.
  • The "Sheesh Mahal" is a replica of the crystal palace in the Fort of Lahore (Amber Fort) and was built from salt crystal blocks in a light pink shade.

In 2003, tourist facilities and attractions were created for the “Khewra Salt Mines Torist Resort” in two phases of development, for which total costs of nine million rupees were invested. For the treatment of allergies, a clinic ward with 20 beds was created in 2007 for ten million rupees. Asthma and other respiratory diseases can be treated with salt therapy. The “Visit Pakistan Year 2007” project included organizing a railway safari to the “Khewra Salt Mine”. In February 2011, the Pakistani Railway began operating special trains from Lahore and Rawalpindi to Khewra. The train station in Khewra was upgraded and expanded accordingly with the support of a private company.

Further information on PMDC

In 1971, the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation established a mining research institute in Khewra. The institute carries out reports and surveys, organizes mining-related courses for the miners and operates the “Khewra Model High School” and the “Khewra Women College”.

Recently the workers won an exemplary environmental lawsuit against the mining company. It was about the provision of clean drinking water . Before this requirement was implemented, only water contaminated by salt, coal and other nearby mining activities was available to the residents of Khewra. This victory of the local residents against the company attracted international attention “because of its importance for the relationship between people and the environment”.

When the government in Pakistan was looking for ways to increase the strategic oil storage reserve to 90 days in 2003, the PMDC put forward a proposal to use the khew ramines as a strategic oil deposit. The scientific report supported the feasibility of this proposal, the plan has not yet been implemented. (see Kashmir conflict )

Flood of 2010

During the torrential rain over Pakistan in 2010, water from a nearby "Nullah" entered the mine. Nullah is a narrow gorge through which water flows only temporarily. During this break-in, water stood at a height of 60 centimeters and blocked the exits. The mine then had to be closed. The mine entrance has been renovated and has also been reopened to tourism.

literature

  • G. Sarwar Alam Asrarullah: Potash deposits of salt mine, Khewra, Jhelum District, Punjab, Pakistan (= Records of the Geological Survey of Pakistan. Volume 21, pt. 2, Report No. 4). Director General, Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta 1973, OCLC 4498255 .
  • E. Rodger: The salt deposits of khewra, in the punjab. In: Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. v9 n1 (January 31, 1890), pp. 34-35. doi: 10.1002 / jctb.5000090114 .

Web links

Commons : Khewra Salt Mine  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Masudul Hasan: Short Encyclopaedia of Pakistan . P. 118
  2. ^ Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
  3. ↑ A historical outline can be found under: Georg Watt: A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India , Part 2, pp. 406 ff.
  4. ↑ Om Gupta: Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh . P. 1250
  5. ↑ Information on KhewraSaltMines by PMDC
  6. ↑ Michael A. Cremo: The Forbidden Archeologist . Torchlight Publishing, 2010, ISBN 978-0-89213-337-6 , pp. 166 ( books.google.com.pk [accessed April 7, 2012]).
  7. ↑ With this type of mining, the salt reserves are removed and in order to maintain stability, load-bearing structures for the overlying mountains are left.
  8. ↑ a b c d ten miles northwest of Gunjital train station. Location of the PMDC's salt and coal mines
  9. ↑ Location on .fallingrain.com
  10. ↑ pmdc.gov: WarchaSaltMines
  11. ↑ Investment potential of the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation
  12. ^ Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation: Warcha Salt Mines
  13. ^ Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation: Kalabagh Salt Mines
  14. ↑ New yearbook for mineralogy, geognosy, geology and petrefacts. 1836
  15. ↑ PMDC: JattaSaltMines
  16. ↑ PMDC: BahadurKhel-KarakSaltMines
  17. ^ Journey to and in Bokhara, from India through Cabool, the Tartarey ..., Volume 2 by Alexander Burnes, p. 247
  18. ↑ General encyclopedia of sciences and arts in alphabetical order , p. 479 : “[...] because the little gold that the Indus and the Tschinab carry with them cannot be considered here; the Pendschab can buy these needs with salt and the products of the soil. "
  19. ^ Annemarie Schimmel: Im Reiche des Großmoguls p. 116 , CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-46486-6
  20. ↑ Handbook of geography and statistics for the educated classes, Volume 3 by Christian Gottfried Daniel Stein, Ferdinand Hörschelmann, p. 24
  21. ^ The Society: Journal of the Society of Arts . Volume 43, 1895, p. 258
  22. ↑ History of khewra_salt_mines
  23. ^ Sir Edwin Arnold: The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India . tape 1 , 2012, ISBN 978-1-150-29926-1 , pp. 166 ( books.google.com.pk [accessed April 7, 2012] First edition: Saunders, Otley, and Co., 1862, reprint).
  24. ↑ a b Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia (=  Natural Resources Research . Volume 12 ). 1st edition. UNESCO, Paris 1974, ISBN 92-3101056-5 , pp. 101 ( books.google.com.pk [accessed May 14, 2012]).
  25. ^ Frank C. Whitmore, Mary Ellen Williams: Resources for the twenty-first century . US Geological Survey, Washington DC 1982, OCLC 623259129 , p. 175 ( books.google.com.pk [accessed April 7, 2012]).
  26. ↑ Camerapix: Spectrum Giude to Pakistan. P. 150
  27. ^ Robert V. Titler, Environmental Chemist and Paul Curry, Water Program Specialist at the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection Bureau of Water Standards and Facility Regulation: Chemical Analysis of Major Components and Trace Contamination in Rock Salt. ( Memento from January 19, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) p. 17.
  28. ↑ content of sodium chloride after an analysis according to Stanley J. 1964 Lefond: Handbook of salt world resources. Plenum Press, 1969, p. 348.
  29. ↑ Khewra: Above the salt. In: InPaperMagazine of December 11, 2010
  30. ↑ The Seattle Times: Pakistan salt mined old-fashioned way , January 25, 2005 article.
  31. ↑ General Encyclopedia of Sciences and Arts , edited by JSErsch and JGGruber, Third Section, Seventeenth Part, FA Brockhaus, Leipzig 1842, keyword Peshawer, p. 295.
  32. ↑ Lindsay Brown, Paul Clammer, Rodney Cocks: Pakistan and the Karakoram Highway
  33. ^ Pakistan Tourist Development Corporation: Khewra Salt Mines
  34. ↑ Tourist Facilities of Khewra Salt Mines
  35. ↑ Khewra Salt Mines as a Tourist Attraction
  36. ↑ Joint projects of the PMDC
  37. ↑ The PMDC Girls' College Model at the Warcha Salt Mine
  38. ↑ Overview of flood pollution in Pakistan
  39. ↑ in Punjabi: nallah
  40. ↑ Pete Heiden: Pakistan. P. 30.