Tool use in animals

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Tool use by a gorilla

As tool use in animals applies for a definition of Jane Goodall applying not to the body belonging objects with which functions of one's body be expanded to achieve in this way an immediate goal. Another definition describes the use of tools in animals as the handling of an inanimate object, with the help of which the position or shape of another object is changed. For example, in birds, chopping up a snail shell with its beak - which is part of their body - or building a nest by bringing up twigs and grass are not considered to be the use of a tool by these definitions .

Historical

The use of tools in the animal kingdom only received scientific attention with the rise of animal psychology and the ethology that emerged from it . The studies of Wolfgang Köhler on chimpanzees in his small research station on Tenerife were groundbreaking . Before these studies, published in 1917 and again in 1921, which quickly stimulated other researchers to carry out similar tests, the use of tools, apart from anecdotal descriptions of individual cases, was considered the sole prerogative of humans. The genus Homo was even temporarily differentiated from earlier genera of the hominini , primarily through the evidence of tool use .

For a few years now, researchers in the field of primate archeology have been analyzing the history of tool making as an expression of the earliest verifiable material culture in primates .

Primates

Handing over a tool to chimpanzees when requested to do so: Mari (right) receives a stick from the experimenter, whereupon Puchi (left) stretches her arm in Mari's cage. As a result of this gesture, Mari hands Puchi the stick, with which Puchi now pulls an otherwise unreachable juice pack and drinks the juice.

That great apes use tools, has long been known. As early as 1778 the Dutch naturalist Arnout Vosmaer had reported from his own experience about one of the first orangutans to arrive alive in Europe , that he had tried in 1776 in the menagerie of Wilhelm V to open a lock with a small piece of wood. On another occasion he tried to pry away the fastening of the chain with which he was tied in his cage with a nail pulled out of a board. It has only been a few years now, however, that more detailed research has been carried out into how often, in what contexts and in what way great apes process and use their tools. In the wild, chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ) and orangutans have so far been observed using tools, but not bonobos ( Pan paniscus ). In fact, young chimpanzees living in the wild are more likely to play with objects that are potentially suitable as tools than young bonobos; however, the male bonobo Kanzi was able to make stone tools and light a fire after instruction from his keepers, and other bonobos kept in animals were also seen using tools. It is unknown whether there are other forms of tool use in gorillas in addition to the photographically documented use of a “ walking aid ” (see figure below) by a female gorilla .

Chimpanzees

Chimpanzees - the closest relatives of humans - were believed to be able to use them early on, and laboratory studies were carried out early on. But it took a long time to find out that they also use tools in the field and even make hunting weapons . In Africa today, eight wild chimpanzee populations are so used to the presence of observers that they can be observed from close range from morning to night.

Early laboratory studies

Chimpanzee with stick
(at Ramat Gan Zoo , Israel )

Wolfgang Köhler's chimpanzees were caught in the wild, brought from Cameroon to Tenerife and initially confronted with very simple experimental set-ups. Köhler described one of the experiments with Sultan decades later as follows:

“A banana is hung up in the wire mesh roof of the playground, much too high for a chimpanzee to reach even while jumping. There is a large box a few meters from this point. Here Sultan never hesitated ; he dragged the box until it was just under the banana, climbed up, jumped from here and reached the banana without the slightest effort. "

- Wolfgang Köhler : The task of Gestalt psychology . Berlin 1971, p. 117

Other chimpanzees had built crate towers, among other things, and climbed up these to get at high-hanging bananas. They also stuck sticks together to get a fruit that was outside their cage. From the descriptions of Koehler it emerges that the chimpanzees did not learn these actions by trial and error alone. Rather, one could observe that an animal was sitting quietly, looking around - at the banana, at the boxes, at the space under the banana - in order to at some point, as it were, deliberately stack the boxes under the banana and thus be able to fetch the fruit. But Koehler also pointed out that not all of his animals were able to use tools.

The research station, which was financed by the Prussian Academy of Sciences from 1914, was closed in 1920 - after the end of the First World War - due to lack of funds, and the five adult female chimpanzees were housed in the Berlin zoo .

In 1937, the American psychologist Meredith P. Crawford (1910–2002) even described a cooperative use of tools by young chimpanzees: They succeeded in pulling a rope together to move a box that was too heavy for one animal alone.

First field observations

As early as 1956, Fred G. Merfield and Harry Miller had noted that Merfield had observed chimpanzees in the 1920s as they put a stick into a bee's nest and sucked off the honey sticking to it after it was pulled out. The first study in a journal did not appear until 1964: Jane Goodall reported in it that chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania use thin sticks to fish termites out of holes in the ground. Jane Goodall also observed that chimpanzees use leaves as a substitute for a sponge to soak up water from tree holes, and that they use stones as hammers and anvils to open nuts. In one of her film documents you can see how a chimpanzee who is sick with diarrhea cleans itself with leaves. A well-known photo shows a chimpanzee striking a moving mock leopard with a long stick .

The chimpanzees do not acquire these very human behaviors to the same extent as humans do through imitation learning , and they are not encouraged or instructed by adults to imitate them. The chimpanzee cubs sit next to the adults for years and just watch. Peter Weber described the behavior in his book The Domesticated Ape :

“Chimpanzee children do not imitate and they do not get any education. In a sense, a chimpanzee receives nothing more from its mother than an idea of ​​what to do. However, he has to find out for himself how to use the tool appropriately. The use of a tool means a new beginning for every generation of chimpanzees. "

  • With a stick to poke ...

  • ... a bonobo climbs the termite mound ...

  • ... and sucks the captured food ...

  • ... at the San Diego Zoo .

Cracking nuts with a hammer and anvil

In Taï National Park in the West African state of Ivory Coast , some chimpanzees use rough pieces of wood as hammers and anvils to crack hard-shelled palm nuts, while others use stones. At Bossou in the Nimba Mountains nature reserve in Guinea , chimpanzees have been observed for several years to repeatedly use certain stones as hammers and anvils to crack nuts. Further observational studies compared the learning strategies of Taï chimpanzees and members of the Mbendjele BaYaka people, who commonly crack the same type of nut, Panda oleosa , in the forests of the Republic of the Congo . According to this, "chimpanzees learned the technology relatively faster than humans and also achieved the efficiency of adults earlier than humans."

In May 2002, researchers led by Christophe Boesch from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig reported for the first time about the discovery of a "chimpanzee workshop" discovered in 2001 at the Panda 100 site . Another "chimpanzee workshop" near Noulo (also Taï National Park) was dated in 2007 to an age of approx. 4,300 years. The excavated stones show the same typical signs of wear and tear as the stones that are used by chimpanzees living today as a tool for breaking nuts; they differ at the same time from all stone tools that could be assigned to humans. The researchers also found remains of starch on the stones that could be assigned to certain nuts. According to the authors, the findings show that the ancestors of chimpanzees and humans shared certain common cultural characteristics for several thousand years that were for a long time believed to be exclusive to humans. This includes, among other things, the selection and procurement of raw materials and their targeted use for a specific work at a specific location, as well as the repeated visits to specific locations for specific purposes, so that residues and debris accumulate there.

Making prey with skewers

Hunting with the help of a tool in Fongoli, Senegal. An adult male chimpanzee pokes with a long branch with a modified (pointed) end piece (a – c) in a hole in the branch of a tree in which a galago is sitting. Eventually he preyed on the animal (d) while his younger brother watched.

In Senegal, researchers working with Jill D. Pruetz from Iowa State University observed over the course of a total of 2500 hours of observation that chimpanzees habitually use skewers to hunt prey. At least one out of 22 observed attacks was successful. The ten such active animals were mostly females who first broke off a branch from a tree and then removed its side shoots. Four of these females even sharpened one end of the branch with their teeth. With their tools they poked vigorously into the sleeping caves of nocturnal Galagos ; every now and then they smelled or licked the tip of their tool afterwards. Science magazine wrote in 2007 that this was the first evidence that a non-human primate had made “lethal weapons for hunting other animals”. In 2015, Jill D. Pruetz reiterated the observations in Senegal and pointed out that the Fongoli chimpanzees are the only animals known to date that hunt other vertebrates with tools.

Sequential tool use in honey harvest

Researchers led by Christophe Boesch from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology observed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the Loango National Park in Gabon as they harvest honey from the nests of underground bees. The chimpanzees use five differently shaped tools: thin, straight sticks with which they poke in the ground to find nests; thick, blunt-ended sticks used to break open the entrance to the bee nest; thinner, lever-like sticks used to break the walls of the passageways within a bee's nest; Sticks with frayed ends that are dipped into the honey; and debarked sticks with spoon-like wide ends with which honey is scooped out of the earth. These tools were found in a spatial context, which suggests that they are used in the appropriate order. Some finds even showed characteristics of two uses, which was first observed in animals. The researchers suspect that such complex, sequential tool use corresponds to that of the immediate ancestors of humans in the early Stone Age.

Scottish researchers reported a comparable observation in 2010: A chimpanzee living in the wild on an island in the Gambia River used several tools to get honey.

Further examples

Crickette Sanz and David Morgan from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology documented a total of 22 different forms of tool use by chimpanzees between 1999 and 2006 with the help of 18 cameras in the Goualougo Triangle ( Republic of the Congo ), including several variants of honey-gathering, termite fishing and water absorption with the help of leaves. Similar findings were obtained in the Bili-Uéré region in the north of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Indications were also found that social learning is an important prerequisite for the use of tools. Other researchers have shown that chimpanzees in the Nimbabergen ( Guinea ) use a “tool kit” in order to capture defensive ants of the genus Dorylus with the help of differently shaped sticks .

In Tanzania , it has been observed that chimpanzees exposed underground storage organs of plants with the help of sticks.

In Guinea, chimpanzees cut the fruits of the okwa tree into manageable pieces with the help of picked up, sharp-edged stones, the shape of which is reminiscent of cleaver .

With the help of a 180 cm long branch, a chimpanzee knocked a drone to the ground in Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem in April 2015 , which was supposed to be making a film for a television team. The drone had previously flown closely over a group of chimpanzees several times, whereupon two chimpanzees grabbed sticks and one of them finally hit the drone deliberately unable to fly. The animals had not previously had "training" in the use of tools.

Wild gorillas

The female gorilla Leah uses a branch as a support when crossing a body of water

In September 2005 Thomas Breuer from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology published a study on the tool use of wild gorillas in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the north of the Congo. For the first time he was able to document photographically in two females that sticks are used as tools by these primates. A female crossed a pond, first sounded out the water depth with a branch and then leaned on this stick in the chest-high water, as it were as a walking aid. Another female leaned on a stick with one arm while the other hand picked up food.

Orangutans

As early as the late 1970s, it was possible to demonstrate with Sumatran orangutans in the Osnabrück Zoological Garden that these animals are not only able to use tools, but also to make simple tools (e.g. sticking metal rods together), in order to get to a goal like food. Birutė Galdikas published the first verified observations of sporadic tool use in wild orangutans in 1980 . Regular tool use - the use of sticks to pick up edible insects - was not documented for this species until 1996; A total of 15 different forms of tool use were identified in six orangutan populations on Borneo and Sumatra . For example, leaves are used as an “umbrella” or to protect hands from thorny branches.

Orangutans can also specifically use water to get food. Researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Anthropology had poured peanuts into a transparent glass vessel, some of which was filled with water, but in which the animals could not reach them with their fingers. All five orangutans then filled their mouths several times (three times on average) with water, spat it into the glass vessel and were able to fish out the peanuts due to the higher water level. In all animals, the latency period after taking the first water swallow was “dramatically” reduced in all subsequent test runs.

Other orangutans are known to use branches as "fly swatters".

Capuchin monkey and crab monkey

Crab-eating macaque from Myanmar ( Macaca fascicularis aurea ) with stone tool
A: Crab-eating macaque from central Thailand with stone tools
B: As a result of the use of tools, the snails are on average smaller (right) than usual (left).
C: Stone utensil put down after shells have been
smashed D: Freshly smashed oyster shells (white) can be clearly distinguished from longer lying (dark).

In the area of ​​the caatinga, Brazilian capuchins use up to fist-sized stones to expose roots in the ground with their help. Antonio de Moura and Phyllis Lee ( University of Cambridge ) also observed the animals as they cut roots with stones or cracked nuts. The capuchin monkeys also use twigs to poke knotholes for insects, water or honey. The authors described the behavior of the monkeys as a relatively young, learned adaptation to their inhospitable and at times very dry habitat , in which food available above the surface became even more scarce at times, since people there had additional food available for these animals through slash and burn, logging and other interventions have decreased. When digging up roots, the monkeys hit the ground several times with the stone, while at the same time they scrape the loosened earth aside with their other hand. This practice has been observed in several groups living miles apart. With the help of their tools, the capuchin monkeys of the Caatinga opened up the roots of cassava , the roots of Thiloa glaucocarpa from the winged family and the fruits of the Jatoba species Hymenaea courbaril as a source of food. Female capuchins with dorsal stripes were also observed poking their noses with a stick, triggering the urge to sneeze .

Capuchins also use stones on their back strips to crack nuts. The tools are used repeatedly and are often transported over long distances. In the Serra da Capivara National Park, the behavior of breaking open nuts and seeds with blowstones goes back around 3000 years, according to archaeological research, and spans around 450 generations of capuchin monkeys. During this time there was evidence of a multiple change in the use of the hammer stones. This ranges from an initial use of smaller blowstones to larger ones and then back to smaller ones, with the animals using larger stones in a period from 2400 to 300 years ago. This is the first evidence that “punch” and “tool traditions” have become detached outside of human cultural development.

Capuchin monkey populations elsewhere in Brazil also use stones as tools. When knocking down, haircuts that resemble those that are regularly attributed to the early hominini at archaeological sites in Africa occasionally accidentally flake off . The authors of a study published in 2016 indicated that, according to their findings, the early ancestors leading directly to humans could not have been the only producers of such discounts.

A behavior comparable to that of the capuchins has also been documented for long-tailed macaques ( Macaca fascicularis ) in Myanmar . In the Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park in central Thailand , long-tailed monkeys use stones to capture oysters , crabs and snails so frequently that the shellfish population has declined noticeably and the remaining ones are smaller than outside the national park.

More mammals

Brown bears

Similar to the early studies by Wolfgang Köhler on chimpanzees, donuts were placed over an enclosure for brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) as food reward in the USA , although they could not be reached from the ground even by jumping up in an upright posture. At the same time, the eight bears were trained in the course of instrumental conditioning to roll a round block of wood under the donuts and from there to get the reward, which six of the test animals reliably mastered after a few attempts. The rewards were then increased for these bears, but additional wooden blocks were placed in their enclosure. Without further conditioning, the bears pushed two of the wooden blocks on top of each other and were able to capture the donuts; This form of handling freely movable objects was interpreted as successful tool use in a research report published in 2017.

Dolphins

Under the headline Flipper Goes to Sponge School , New Scientist commented in 2005 on a study that had recently appeared in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . In it, Michael Krützen from the University of Zurich and researchers from the University of New South Wales in Sydney reported that some of the bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay, Western Australia, detach sponges from the seabed while searching for food and put them over their snouts. The sponges serve them as a kind of glove to protect their snout from injuries when searching for food in stony ground; they swim just above the sea floor, with the tip of their snout churning up the bottom, scare away fish in this way and try to capture them. Michael Krützen from the Anthropological Institute at the University of Zurich discovered that of the 3,000 or so dolphins in Shark Bay, only about 30 are so-called Spongers . To investigate genetic influences, the DNA of 13 sponge-using dolphins and the DNA of 172 dolphins who do not use sponges were analyzed. It was found that the daughters apparently learn the use of sponges from their mother: the animals using sponges showed a significant genetic relationship. The researchers therefore assume that the use of sponges was only 'invented' relatively recently by an ancestor. It is also the first example of a material culture in marine mammals and led to changes in the use of available food.

In another study in Shark Bay, it was observed that dolphins drive fish into the empty shells of giant snails, then take them with them to the sea surface and shake them back and forth so that the food falls into their mouths. In this case, the genetic study found that the behavior spread within a generation. This would mean that dolphins are not only able to learn from their mother, but also, as adults, directly from conspecifics.

dingo

A young male dingo kept in captivity - similar to Köhler's chimpanzees - repeatedly pulled a table through its cage without training, near a delicacy hanging high up on the grating, out of reach, climbed onto the table and was able to reach the delicacy.

Elephants

Elephants are also known to use tools. For example, they wave twigs with their trunk and thus drive flies from their bodies. Joyce Poole, a field researcher with African elephants , also reported that elephants were seen throwing large stones at an electric fence, cutting off the power supply.

Rodents

Sea otter cracking a clamshell

Naked mole rats ( Heterocephalus glaber ) dig large cave systems with the help of their incisors . It has been observed that - at least in captivity - they often place wood chips and pieces of roots behind their incisors and in front of their lips and molars when digging in particularly fine soil material. This behavior was interpreted as being suitable for preventing the inhalation of dust and other foreign bodies. Two Cornell University researchers described this behavior as tool use in a 1998 publication; However, the authors' statement that the pieces of wood or roots served the - purely passive - protection of the respiratory tract contradicts their interpretation that this is a use of tools.

However, the findings of another study were clear. Five degus ( Octodon degus ) were successfully trained in the laboratory by Japanese biolinguists within two months to move a slide with their front legs so that they could collect sunflower seeds that could not be reached with their paws alone. According to the authors, this was the first demonstration of the ability to use tools in rodents .

Pigs

Three Visayas pustular pigs were observed in the Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes in Paris and documented on video digging in the earth with a wooden stick in their mouth. One adult boar probably used the tool to search for food, two adult sows used a stick during the last phase of nest building.

Sea otters

Sea otters , floating on their backs, lay stones on their stomach and use them to crack shellfish . They smash the shells of mussels and the shells of snails with the help of stones also on rock formations and also use the same stones for years; they are the only marine animals in which these behaviors have been described so far.

Birds

A straight-billed crow uses one easily accessible tool to reach another with which it ultimately gains access to the tool with which it gets to the forage.

There have repeatedly been anecdotal, but not scientifically proven, accidental observations about the use of tools by birds, against which it could often be objected that the handling of small sticks primarily served to build nests. Systematic observations on the use of tools by birds have therefore been made late.

Straight-billed crows and Hawaiian crows

Straight-billed crows ( Corvus moneduloides ) from New Caledonia can bend wires and use them to fish for food - a behavior that is part of the natural behavioral repertoire at least in some wild populations of straight-billed crows. Researchers from the University of Auckland also reported that the birds transformed a forked branch into a hook in several steps.

The crows were also seen working the leaves of screw trees in the wild so that they could fish maggots from cracks in the trees. With the help of mini cameras attached to some wild birds, it has been shown that blades of grass successfully used as a tool for finding insects are carried in the beak when the birds fly to another feeding place. With the help of their tools, the crows obtain a significant proportion of their daily protein and fatty food.

In a laboratory experiment, several test animals even managed to get another tool with the help of a tool. The birds could only get a tempting piece of meat if they first poked a much longer stick out of a barred box with an easily accessible small stick. Three out of seven birds coped with this situation straight away. Three other birds also used the short stick as a tool, but initially failed to get the long stick. A total of six birds finally got the food; only one crow initially tried to reach the food with the small, unsuitable stick. From these observations, the New Zealand behavioral researchers concluded that the straight-billed crows could cope with the task at hand without trying to find a solution through trial and error. Later some test animals even managed to combine three tools.

Like the straight-billed crows, the Hawaiian crows (Corvus hawaiiensis) use small sticks as tools to get food out of holes and crevices. This ability is considered innate as it is also developed by young crows, who have not had the opportunity to learn this behavior from adult birds.

Cockatoos

A Goffink's cockatoo was observed to bite elongated splinters from a wooden beam with its powerful beak, to break small sticks from a branched branch and finally to use these pieces of wood to fetch nuts that were beyond its reach without the use of tools. Similarly, one of the animals separated a narrow strip of cardboard from a larger piece of cardboard and used the strip as a tool, while in another experiment the end of a straight wire was bent into a hook to get food. In 2014, in the course of an experiment, it was possible to observe how three (out of six) Goffink's cockatoos learned to use a stick as a tool from a conspecific, whereby they did not copy its approach, but rather modified it significantly. According to the researchers, this is "the first evidence of a social transmission of tool use in a bird".

Palm cockatoos ( Probosciger aterrimus ) use appropriately bitten sticks, hard-shelled fruits and stones and hit them repeatedly against tree branches in a rhythm that is unique to each animal, producing widely echoing knocking noises. This behavior probably serves to mark the territory.

Rooks and Keas

Rooks , for which no tool use has so far been proven in the field, exhibited behavior in the laboratory that is on a par with straight-billed crows: the birds used sticks to extract a treat from a glass tube, the smaller the narrower the glass tube. They also bent the ends of pieces of wire so that they could use these ends as hooks. Keas behave similarly .

Further examples

Otto Koehler reported that Egyptian vultures are known to hurl stones at ostrich eggs until they burst; afterwards they consume their contents.

Heinz Sielmann reported on observations on woodpecker finches from the Galapagos Islands with the descriptive name Cactospiza pallida , that they use a cactus spike or a straight piece of wood and even break them to poke insects out of holes in the wood.

Blue jays have been seen in captivity using tools to bury food.

The male yellow-naped bowerbird creates (similar to other bowerbirds ) an avenue-type arbor especially for courtship (consisting of two walls intertwined with sticks, about 36 cm long, arranged in parallel at a distance of about 25 cm). The male prefers to attach colored objects to the arbor, preferably to its two openings (berries, snail shells, metal, glass, plastic parts), preferably in red or yellow-brown tones. He also uses brown, red and yellow dyes to paint the walls. He applies the paint by horizontal movements with bundles of leaves that he holds across his beak. With this “brush” he applies a mixture of leaves, fruits and clay, mixed with saliva, to the walls. Then he cleans the workplace and removes all work equipment, leaves and other loose objects also around his arbor.

Several captive Vasa Parrots have been seen using pebbles and date kernels to grind the insides of clam shells and then lick off the lime powder. They also use these tools to break conch shells.

Two puffins were seen in their natural breeding colony - in Wales and Iceland - scratching their abdomen with a stick; video documentation is available for the observation in Iceland.

fishes

A wrasse ( Choerodon anchorago ) was observed in 2009 and filmed as it encountered hard-shelled prey, looked for a suitable stone, put it in its mouth, swam back to the food source and hit the prey with it. Similar behaviors had previously been observed sporadically in other wrasse.

In an experimental setup, South American freshwater stingrays of the genus Potamotrygon ( Potamotrygon castexi ) were observed to set water in motion in such a way that they could release food from a test apparatus.

special cases

In the standard work Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals published in 1980 , which was revised and reissued in 2011, a common definition is as follows: Tool use is “the external use of an external object from the environment in order to Modify the shape, the position or the state of another object, another organism or the user himself more efficiently, while the user holds or carries the aid during or immediately before use and is responsible for the correct and successful alignment of the aid. “Even in specialist publications, however, behaviors are occasionally described as“ tool use ”that are not covered by the usual definitions.

  • Swamp crocodiles ( Crocodylus palustris ) in India and Mississippi alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis ) in the USA have been observed, partially submerged, lurking in the midst of heron colonies, balancing sticks on their snouts. Birds that approached to collect the sticks as material for nest building were grabbed and eaten by the reptiles. The observing researchers interpreted these sticks as bait to attract potential prey, and the behavior of the crocodiles as tool use, since the sticks are objects that are used for a specific function. The balancing of the sticks was most common in those crocodiles that live in bird colonies and also during the herons' breeding season.
  • Digger wasps of the genus Ammophila occasionally take pebbles between their mandibles in order to pound the loose sand over the entrance after digging their egg chambers.
  • For the ant species Aphaenogaster rudis as well as Aphaenogaster subterranea and Aphaenogaster senilis , the use of tools in connection with the acquisition of food has been described.
  • Octopuses occasionally use clam shells or other objects as shelter, which has been described as "defensive tool use".

See also

literature

  • Peter-Rene Becker: Use of tools in the animal kingdom. How animals hammer, drill, paint. In: Edition Universitas. Hirzel / Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-8047-1291-6 .
  • Vicki K. Bentley-Condit and EO Smith: Animal tool use: current definitions and an updated comprehensive catalog. In: Behavior. Volume 147, No. 2, 2010, pp. 185-221 and A1-A32, doi: 10.1163 / 000579509X12512865686555 , full text (PDF) .
  • Peter Beurton: Tool production in the animal kingdom and human tool production. In: German magazine for philosophy. Volume 38, No. 12, 1990, pp. 1168-1182, doi: 10.1524 / dzph . 1990.38.12.1168 . Reprinted in: Marxist sheets. 44th vol. (2006), No. 3, pp. 48-53 and No. 4, pp. 73-82.
  • Robert W. Shumaker, Kristina R. Walkup and Benjamin B. Beck: Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-8018-9853-2 .
  • Timothy Taylor: The Artificial Ape: How Technology Changed the Course of Human Evolution. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-61763-6 .
  • Thomas Wynn et al .: “An ape's view of the Oldowan” revisited. In: Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. Volume 20, No. 5, 2011, pp. 181-197, doi: 10.1002 / evan.20323 .

Web links

Commons : Tool use in animals  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ " The use of an external object as a functional extension of mouth or beak, hand or claw, in the attainment of an immediate goal ". Jane van Lawick-Goodall: Tool-using in primates and other vertebrates . In: DS Lehrman, RA Hinde, E. Shaw (eds.): Advances in the study of behavior . Vol. 3. Academic Press, New York (NY) 1970, pp. 195-249 . Quoted from: Vicki K. Bentley-Condit, EO Smith: Animal tool use: current definitions and an updated comprehensive catalog . In: Behavior . Vol. 147, No. 2 . Brill, 2010, ISSN  0005-7959 , pp. 185-221; A1 – A32 , doi : 10.1163 / 000579509X12512865686555 ( full text as PDF ). For further definitions see nationalzoo.si.edu ( Memento of October 25, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
  2. ^ " Tool use is defined as the manipulation of an inanimate object to change the position or form of a separate object. "K. Okanoya, N. Tokimoto, N. Kumazawa, S. Hirata, A. Iriki: Tool-use training in a species of rodent: the emergence of an optical motor strategy and functional understanding. In: PLoS ONE. Volume 3, No. 3: e1860, 2008, doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0001860
  3. ^ Intelligence tests on anthropoids I. In: Abhandlungen der Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften , 1917, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse, no. 1 and intelligence tests on great apes. Berlin, Springer, 1921
  4. ↑ Johan Bierens de Haan : Tool use and tool production in a lower ape (Cebus hypoleucus Humb.). In: Journal of Comparative Physiology. Volume 13, No. 4, 1931, pp. 639-695, doi: 0.1007 / BF00337479 .
  5. ↑ Ludwig Noiré : The tool and its meaning for the history of human development. J. Diemer, Mainz 1880, full text .
  6. ^ Johan Bierens de Haan: Tools and use of tools in animals. In: The natural sciences . Volume 15, No. 23, 1927, pp. 481-487, doi: 10.1007 / BF01506569 .
  7. ↑ Michael Haslam et al .: Primate archeology. In: Nature. Volume 460, 2009, pp. 339-344, doi: 10.1038 / nature08188 .
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